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Greek Mosaics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2015

Martin Robertson
Martin Robertson*
Affiliation:
Oxford
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Extract

The curious art of mosaic had one period of splendour: the Byzantine empire; and that art was assuredly Greek. The Greek mosaics of my title, however, are the much more humdrum productions of an earlier age. In mosaic, even more than in other arts, it is hard to draw the line between Greek and Roman, but this provisional survey of early development hardly reaches a point where that comes in question. I am not concerned with Pompeii, and little with Delos, Pergamon or even Sicily; a trifle more with Alexandria; but primarily with the pebble-mosaics of the fourth century, though looking forward as well as back. The earliest pebble-mosaics are of a simple, decorative character; later they become much more pictorial and sophisticated. The later pieces are of the greatest interest to the art-historian, but may trouble the art-critic. Mosaic by its nature is essentially an art of decoration, and can only achieve real greatness in an aesthetic ambience where purely decorative values are dominant, as they were in Byzantium; not in the Greco-Roman world, where, as in the Renaissance, half the artist's excitement comes from wrestling with the representation of nature.

Technically the pebble-mosaics of which I shall be speaking are all set in approximately the same way: a layer of coarse cement or plaster as a foundation, and above that one of finer quality into which the pebbles are pressed. Presumably the mosaicist, like the fresco-painter with his top coat of plaster, laid only so much of the fine layer at a time as he could adorn before it hardened; and as the fresco-painter normally worked down the wall, the mosaicist, I suppose, worked from one edge, moving backwards across the already hard surface of the coarse cement, laying the fine and setting the pebbles in it. In Renaissance fresco-painting the artist often drew a sinopia or outline of the composition on the under-plaster, to guide him as he painted the wet plaster with which he gradually covered it. Traces of such guides have been observed by the excavators under mosaic-floors at Pella. One would guess that it was normal practice, and that the mosaicist working on any but the very simplest pattern-design must also have followed a cartoon, but of what nature we have no idea.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Hellenic Studies , Volume 85 , November 1965 , pp. 72 - 89
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies 1965

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References

This article is based on a lecture given to the Hellenic Society in March 1964. I have revised and corrected, but made no attempt to disguise the lecture-form, which seems suited to the tentative and provisional character of what I have to say. I have had help from many colleagues, and would like to mention in particular Dr Makaronas and Dr Petsas, who are most generous in allowing access to their excavations and finds at Pella, and supplied the photographs on pl. xx, 1 and 2. I had the great and most helpful privilege of being shown the excavations and finds by Dr Petsas and discussing them with him, and he has read this article in typescript and corrected some errors. I am most grateful to the late M. B. Cookson, Miss J. du Plat Taylor and Miss E. Macnamara for photographs of the Motya mosaic (pls. xix, 1 and 2; xxii, 3) and notes on it. I am also indebted for valuable references to Professor J. M. C. Toynbee and Mr E. Kerr Borthwick; and to the authorities of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, for the photograph of pl. xxii, 2, and permission to reproduce it. Pls. xviii, 1 and 2 are after AJA xxxvi pl. 4 and xxxviii pl. 28; pls. xxi, 1 and 2 after Brown, , Ptolemaic Painting pl. 442 Google Scholar; pls. xxi, 2 and xxii, 1 from Museum postcards.

1 Olynthus viii 282 with fig. 29.

2 Petsas, in the forthcoming Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress (see below, n. 17.).

3 Plain floors: e.g. Athens, , AA li (1936) 211 f.Google Scholar, fig. 22.

4 Eighth-century floor: ILN 17/11/56, 859 fig. 11; AJA lxi (1957) 322, pl. 89 fig. 7. Achaemenian: ibid. lviii (1954) 150. Hellenistic: ibid. lx (1956) 250, pl. 81 fig. 2.

5 Olynthus viii, The Hellenic House, passim; especially 141–51 with fig. 5.

6 List of mosaics from Olynthus: ibid., 290.

7 AJA xxxviii (1934) 510, pl. 31.

8 Olynthus ii 25f., fig. 99.

9 AM xix (1894) 508. It lies on the south-west of the Areopagus, and has now been cleared by the American excavators of the Agora.

10 House of the Comedian: Olynthus viii 63–8, fig. 3, pls. 17, 87. The mosaics: androni: ibid. pl. 17. 1; v. pl., vii and 16 B; court: ibid. pls. viii, ix and 17. Coin-hoard: ibid. 14, n. 46.

11 A. vi. 3: Olynthus v 7, pls. iv A, 13 B; AJA xxxvi (1932) 19 fig. 1.

12 A 1: Olynthus ii 42, figs. 120, 123. A. vi. 4 (animals in entry-panel): ibid. v. 7–9, fig. 1, pls. v, 14 A; AJA xxxvi (1932) 19, fig. 2. A. vi. 6: Olynthus v 9, pl. 14 B; AJA xxxvi (1932) 21, fig. 3. A. vi. 8: Olynthus v 9 f., pl. 16 A. B. v. 1 (double sphinxes): ibid. 10 f., pls. vi, 15.

13 A. vi. 3: ibid. v 4ff., pls. i, iii, 12, 13 A; AJA xxxvi (1932), pls. 1, 2.

14 A. vi. i: Olynthus ii 80 ff., fig. 203; v 2ff., pls. ii and 2.

15 Olynthus v. 55–67, frontispiece and pls. 14–16 (mosaics of andron and anteroom in situ), 84–6. Mosaics: andron: AJA xxxviii (1934) 506ff., fig. 3 and pl. 29; anteroom: ibid., 508ff, pl. 30; ‘room f’ and anteroom: ibid. 503–6, fig. 2.

16 Metzger, , Représentations 136–9Google Scholar, nos. 57 f.

17 Petsas in ILN 2/8/1958, 197ff.; Archaeology xi (1958), 246–54; ibid. xvii (1964), 74–84; Balkan Studies i (1960), 113–28; ibid. iv (1963), 155–70; Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, 14: Pella (Lund, 1964); also in the forthcoming Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress; and the forthcoming article ‘Pella’ in the Enciclopedia dell' Arte antica. Makaronas, in Arch. Delt. 1960, 72–83 Google Scholar; ibid. 1961/2, 209–13. Also Daux, , ‘Chronique des Fouilles’ in BCH lxxxii (1958). 761–5Google Scholar; lxxxiii (1959) 702 ff.; lxxxiv (1960) 783–8; lxxxv (1961) 804–12; lxxxvi (1962) 805–13. Levi in the article ‘Mosaico’ in the Enciclopedia dell' Arte antica V 209 ff. Detailed references below.

18 Greek Painting, 170.

19 See particularly the photographs illustrating two articles by Robinson, in AJA xxxvi (1932) 16–24 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, Pls. 1–4; xxxviii (1934) 501–10, pls. 28–31.

20 Whitaker, , Motya, 194–202 Google Scholar, figs. 24, A and B. See also below, p. 84.

21 Ziegle, K. in RE xvi, 403 Google Scholar s.v. ‘Motya’.

22 Visible in the photograph Archaeology xvii (1964) 77, which gives the layout. Cf. the plan, ibid. 76, and photographs ibid. 83 and Archaeology xi (1958) 248, top; BCH lxxxvi (1962) 813, fig. 27; SMA 14: Pella, fig. 1. See also the forthcoming Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress (n. 17 above).

23 B on plan in Archaeology xvii (1964) 76. Arch. Delt. 1960 pls. 40 a, e (details), 41–2; BCH lxxxii (1958) pl. 52, top; details, ibid. 763, figs. 14f.; Archaeology xi (1958) figs, on pp. 252–3 (top); ibid. xvii (1964) 78, fig. 7 (detail of underside); SMA 14: Pella, fig. 3; ILN, l.c., 199 figs. 13–15.

24 Arch. Delt. i960, pl. 47, bottom; BCH lxxxii (1958) pl. 52, bottom; Archaeology xi (1958), fig. on p. 251; ibid xvii (1964) 78, fig. 5 (detail); Balkan Studies i pl. 6. ILN, l.c., 199 fig. 16.

25 A chemical analysis of the material of the beads will appear in the Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress.

26 Metzger, l.c., nos. 50–6.

27 ARV 2 1462–71, Group G; and many examples in other groups.

28 Arch. Delt. 1960, pl. 47, top; detail of male centaur: Archaeology xvii (1964) 78 fig. 6.

29 Schroeder, , Griechische Bronzeeimer 9 fig. 5, and 10 no. 5Google Scholar; Beazley, , EVP 251 no 4.Google Scholar Mr Shefton very kindly sent me photographs of a replica recently acquired by Newcastle.

30 Louvre, , Encyclopédie Photographique 22, 56f.Google Scholar

31 Zeuxis' centaur-family: Lucian, , Zeuxis 3 Google Scholar ( Over-beck, Schriftquellen 1663 Google Scholar). His sojourn with Pliny, Archelaus NH xxxv 62 Google Scholar (Overbeck 1662, the Pan); Aelian, VH xiv 17 Google Scholar (Overbeck 1654, the palace-decorations). See Rumpf, MZ 126ff.Google Scholar Clairmont, 's assertion (Yale Classical Studies xv (1957) 175 Google Scholar) that Zcuxis spent more than a decade at Archelaus's court is due to a misreading of Rumpf, l.c., where the dates (413–399) are those of Archelaus's reign. Within those limits we know nothing of the date or duration of the painter's visit.

32 I on the plan, Archaeology xvii (1964) 76. BCH lxxxvi (1962) 811, fig. 25 (without border), 812 fig. 26 (with border); Arch. Delt. 1961/2, pls. 248–50, 243, bottom; Archaeology, l.c., 80, fig. 10 (with border); also in colour (picture with part of border and one detail) in a calendar for 1963 issued by the Ionian Bank of Greece. SMA 14: Pella fig. 6 (with border);

33 PBSR xviii (1950), 1–43, ‘Peopled Scrolls, A Hellenistic Motif in Imperial Art’.

34 See below, p. 88, n. 84.

35 Γ on plan, Archaeology xvii (1964) 76. BCH lxxxvi (1962) folding plate 25–6 (without border); Arch. Delt. 1961/2, pls. 241–3 (top); Archaeology, l.c. 80, fig. 8 (with inner frame); SMA 14: Pella, fig. 4 (with part of border); Balkan Studies 4 (1963) pl. 14 (with inner frame). Two details in colour: Ionian Bank calendar, 1963 (see n. 32).

36 Benndorf, and Niemann, Das Heroon von Gjölbaschi-Trysa pl. 22 Google Scholar; Eichler, Die Reliefs des Heroon von Gjölbaschi-Trysa pl. 10.Google Scholar

37 See Bothmer, , Amazons 124–30Google Scholar, pls. 67–8.

38 Androdamia: Bothmer, l.c., 125 no. 10 (abduction of Antiope). Antianira: ibid., 162 no. 16. Andromache: ibid., 6ff. nos. 1, 3, 8, 11, 25; 48 no. 106; 57 no. 179 bis (on all these fighting Herakles); 101 no. 112; 131 f. nos. 3, 8, 9 (on all fighting Herakles); 150 no. 38; 161f. nos. 4, 12 (in battle against Theseus and his companions); 186 no. 100 (fighting Theseus); 203 no. 161.

39 Γ 189 and Ζ 186. Eustathius's comments run: 403. 14: 635.54:

40 Ghali-Kahil, , Enlèvements et Retour d'Hélène 305–12Google Scholar, pls. 100–4 and p. 313 figs. 2–3.

41 Pherecydes ap. Schol. Pind. Nem. v 89.

42 Present at the abduction: Bothmer, l.c., 124, no. 7, pl. 68, 4. Fighting Alexandre: kantharos, London E. 157, CVA iii I pls. 34. 2; 35. 1; Bothmer, l.c., 186 no. 100.

43 JHS lxvii (1947) 15; MZ 145. The Pliny, reference is NH xxxv 130 (Overbeck 1823).Google Scholar

44 C on plan in Archaeology xvii (1964) 76; Arch. Delt. 1960, pls. 43–6; Archaeology xi (1958) fig. on p. 253 below (in situ, showing border); BCH lxxxii (1958) 764 fig. 16 (as found, but not showing border); ibid. lxxxiii (1959) 705 fig. 23 (without border); the same SMA 14: Pella, fig. 2; Robertson, , Greek Painting 169 Google Scholar (colour, without border), 166 (colour detail); the same in Balkan Studies, l.c. pls. 7 and 8. Details: Archaeology xvii (1964) 78 fig. 4; ILN, l.c. 199, fig. 18; Enciclopedia dell'Arte antica V 209, fig. 295 and colour plate.

45 The finest example is on the Chigi vase: Robertson, , Greek Painting 49 Google Scholar; Johansen, , Les Vases Sicyoniens pl. 40.Google Scholar Earlier Protocorinthian renderings: ibid. pls. 23. 1; 24. 1; 29. 2. See Johansen, ibid. 149; Payne, , NC 116 Google Scholar n.9 (one Corinthian example of the end of the seventh century, ibid., pl. 24. 4).

46 Plutarch, Alex. M. 40 Google Scholar (Overbeck 1491; cf. 1490).

47 Winter, F. Der Alexandersarkophag (1912)Google Scholar; KiB 336f.; Bieber, , Hellenistic Sculpture 72f.Google Scholar; Richter, Sculpture and Sculptors figs. 176, 399f., 748. Possible relation to Delphi group, Bieber, l.c., 73.

48 Winter, KiB 334. 8.

49 Most recently, Andreae, , Das Alexandermosaik (Opus Nobile xiv, 1959)Google Scholar and Rumpf, in AM lxxvii (1962) 229–41.Google Scholar

50 Reuterswärd, , Polychromie 61 Google Scholar (pl. 9).

51 Δ on plan in Archaeology xvii (1964) 76. BCH lxxxvi (1962) pls. 27 (with border) and 28 (without), 810 fig. 24 (detail); Arch. Delt. l.c. pls. 244–7; Archaeology 17 (1964) 81 fig. 9 (with border and lozengy entrance panel); the same, SMA 14: Pella fig. 5; Balkan Studies 4 (1963) pl. 13 (withborder). Coloured pictures of the whole (with and without border) and a detail: Ionian Bank calendar 1963 (see above n. 32).

52 See below p. 88.

53 Forthcoming Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress (above, n. 17).

54 Good examples in Jucker, Das Bildinis im Blätterkelch figs. 126–8 (Aura, 127).

55 ÖJh xxi/xxii (1922–4) Beiblatt 203–14, figs. 122–3 (Praschniker); Rumpf, MZ 139 Google Scholar fig. 16. See also Petsas in the forthcoming Proceedings of the 1963 Paris Congress (above, n. 17).

56 NH xxi 4; xxxv 125 (Overbeck 1760; other texts on Pausias, ibid., 1761–3; on the Sicyonian school, 1745–70); Rumpf, , MZ 132 Google Scholar.

57 Centaurs: JHS lix (1939) pl. 13 c; Enciclopedia dell' Arte antica v 209, fig. 294. Others Praktika 1935, 82 f. figs. 15–17. ‘Dark on light’: cf. Olynthus viii 287 n. 14; and below p. 86.

58 See above, n. 4.

59 See above, n. 9.

60 The complete Corinth floor: AJA xxiii (1929) 526ff., fig. 10. References to each of the others below.

61 Motya: see above, n. 20.

62 AJA xli (1937) 546 f., fig. 8; Ancient Corinth, a guide to the Museum (1956) pl. 2.

63 Athenaeus XII 542 D (Overbeck 2161) = Jacoby FGH II A 140 ff. 10 (27): .

64 VH ix 9.

65 AJA lxi (1957) pl. 86, figs. 14–16; Archaeological Reports 1956 19, fig. 16: SMA 13: Vergina fig. 14 (Room E on plan, ibid. fig. 10).

66 De Corona xviii 48 and 296. On Aristratus see Cauer in RE; on his portrait Overbeck 1759 (Plutarch Aratus 13).

67 [Andocides] iv c. Alcibiad. 17; Plutarch, , Alcibiades 16 Google Scholar (Overbeck 1123f.). See Burn, A. R., CQ. iv (1954) 138–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

68 Galen, Protrept. 8 Google Scholar (Kühn p. 18 ff)….

69 Blouet, , Expedition de la Morée i pl. 64 Google Scholar; Doerpfeld, in Olympia ii 10, pl. 105Google Scholar; Rumpf, , MZ 123f.Google Scholar figs 11–12.

70 AH i 134f., pl. 29 W.

71 MZ 123f. References in Plutarch and Athenaeus (Overbeck 1731–3).

72 Schleif, and Zschietzschmann, , Olympische Forschungen i (1944) 1–52.Google Scholar

73 Praktika 1931, 77 f., figs. 4and 5.

74 Arch. Delt. iv (1918) 171–6, fig. 1; see also Archaeological Reports 1963/4, 8.

75 Russia, S. AA xix (1904) 104 fig. 3Google Scholar; Beloff, , Vestnik Drevnej Istorii 1938 no. 3, 238–42, figs. 1 and 2Google Scholar; id., Materiali … SSSR xxxiv (1953), 282 f., figs. 4 f. and colour plate. Assos: Clarke, , Bacon, and Koldewey, , Investigations at Assos 119, 121.Google Scholar Tarsus: Goldman, H., Excavations at Gözlü Küle, Tarsus i (1950) 10 Google Scholar, figs, 10, 12, 13.

76 Brown, , Ptolemaic Painting, 69 Google Scholar, no. 51, pl. 44. 2.

77 Ibid., 77–82.

78 Ibid., 68 f., no. 50, pl. 44. 1.

79 ‘Subject and Technique in Hellenistic-Roman Mosaics from Sicily’ (Art Bulletin 1960' 244–62).

80 Athenaeus v 206 d 41 (Overbeck 1985).

81 Brown, l.c., 67 f. no. 48, 70–4, pls. 38, 40.

82 Pliny, NH xxxvi 184 Google Scholar (Overbeck 2158; cf. 2159 f.)

83 Pergamon v. 1 Textb. pls. 27–8, Tafelb. pls. 16–18; Brown, l.c., pl. 39. 1. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin: Baukunst der roemischen Kaiserzeit (1954) 79, fig. 21, 85, fig. 22 (the signature and a detail of the peopled scroll; another: PBSR xviii (1950) pl. 3. 2.

84 See last note, and above n. 33. The Pergamene example is discussed by Toynbee and Ward Perkins, l.c., 7 f.

85 Délos viii pl. 53; Mon. Piot xiv (1908) pl. 12 f.

86 Délos viii pl. 52; xiv 15, fig. 4 and pl. 3; Mon. Piot, l.c., pls. 14, 15; Brown, l.c., pls. 43. 1 and 2, and 42. 2.

87 Boston 10. 187; Beazley, , ARV 2 1337 Google Scholar, Near the Pronomos Painter no. 10; Hahland, , Vasen um Meidias pl. 17. bGoogle Scholar; Metzger, , Représentations pl. 19. 2.Google Scholar

88 See above, n. 49.