Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-fwgfc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-13T09:53:54.592Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Corporatism and Functionalism in Modern Chilean Politics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2009

Extract

After the Chilean junta abolished party democracy in September 1973, it announced plans for a new constitution modeled on corporatist lines. Although, to date, few concrete expressions of these proposals have emerged, there is enough evidence since 1973 to suggest the lines along which the junta is thinking, and this indicates that not only international factors but also two sources of native historical inspiration are at work. First, and most important, Chile's military dictators were considering elevating an existing infrastructure of government-certified functional interest groups to replace the outlawed parties as intermediaries between the State and the individual. These gremios (private economic sctoral organizations, such as the National Society of Agriculture) had traditionally shaped public decisions both as representatives of their occupational fields and as permanent, often official, participants in state agencies concerned with their production sectors.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1978

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Schmitter, Philippe C., Interest Conflict and Political Change in Brazil (Stanford, 1971), especially pp. 95110;Google ScholarWiarda, Howard J., ‘Corporatism and Development in the IbericLatin World’, in Pike, Fredrick B. and Stritch, Thomas, The New Corporatism (Notre Dame, 1974), pp. 333;Google ScholarLinz, Juan, ‘An Authoritarian Regime: Spain’, in Allardt, E. and Rokkan, S., Mass Politics (New York, 1970), pp. 251–83.Google Scholar

2 Schmitter, Philippe C., ‘Still the Century of Corporatism?’ in Pike and Stritch, pp. 85–131.Google Scholar

3 Linz, ‘An Authoritarian Regime’, pp. 251–83.Google ScholarSchmitter, ‘Still the Century of Corporatism?’, pp. 93–7.Google Scholar

4 Scott, Robert E., ‘Political Elites and Political Modernization: The Crisis of Transition’, in Lipset, Seymour Martin and Solari, Aldo, Elites in Latin America (New York, 1967), pp. 117–45;Google ScholarSchmitter, loc. Cit., pp. 93–116;Google ScholarNewton, Ronald C., ‘Natural Corporatism and the Passing of Populism in Spanish America’, in Pike and Stritch, pp. 3451;Google ScholarNewton, Ronald C., ‘On “Functional Groups”, “Fragmentation ”, and “Pluralism” in Spanish American Political SocietyHispanic American Historical Review, 50, I (02. 1970), 129;CrossRefGoogle ScholarWiarda, loc. cit., pp. 16–23;Google ScholarMorse, Richard M., ‘The Heritage of Latin America’, in Hartz, Louis et al. , The Founding of New Societies (New York, 1964), pp. 123–77.Google Scholar

5 Schmitter, Interest Conflict, pp. 108–12, 126, 273.Google Scholar

6 Linz, Juan, ‘The Future of an Authoritarian Situation or the Institutionalization of an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Brazil’, in Stepan, Alfred (ed.), Authoritarian Brazil (New Haven and London, 1973), pp. 233–54;Google ScholarSchmitter, Interest Conflict, pp. 95–126, 273;Google ScholarDrake, Paul W., Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–1952 (Urbana, forthcoming);Google ScholarO'Donnell, Guillermo A., Modernization and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism (Berkeley, 1973), especially pp. 53–5;Google Scholardi Tella, Torcuato, ‘Populism and Reform in Latin America’, in Véliz, Claudio (ed.), Obstacles to Change in Latin America (London, 1965), pp. 4774;Google ScholarWeffort, Francisco C., ‘El populismo en la política brasileña’, in Furtado, Celso et al. , Brazil: hoy (2nd ed., Mexico, 1970), pp. 5484.Google Scholar

7 Linz, ‘The Future’, especially p. 236.Google ScholarO'Donnell, pp. vii, 53–78;Google ScholarNewton, ‘Natural Corporatism’, especially pp. 39–42;Google ScholarMoore, Barrington Jr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston, 1966), pp. xv–xvi.Google Scholar

8 O'Donnell, loc. cit., pp. 55–78.Google Scholar

9 Schmitter, ‘Still the Century’, pp. 102–22.Google Scholar

10 Ibid., pp. 502–22. Newton, ‘Natural Corporatism’, pp. 36–47;Google ScholarPike, Fredrick B., ‘Corporatism and Latin American-United States Relations’, in Pike and Stritch, pp. 157, 168.Google Scholar

11 Wiarda, loc. cit., p. 7;Google ScholarPhelan, John Leddy, ‘Authority and Flexibility in the Spanish Imperial Bureaucracy’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 5 (06 1960), 4764;CrossRefGoogle ScholarMorse, Richard M., ‘Political Theory and the Caudillo’, in Hamill, Hugh M. Jr, Dictatorship in Spanish America (New York, 1965), pp. 5268.Google Scholar

12 Patricio, García F., Los gremios patronales (Santiago, 1973), pp. 99113.Google Scholar

13 Menges, Constantine C., ‘Public Policy and Organized Business in Chile: A Preliminary Analysis’, Journal of International Affairs, 20 2 (1966), 343–65;Google ScholarGonzález, Pedro Luis, 50 años de labor de la Sociedad de Fomento Fabril (Santiago, 1933). Also see the professional journals of these societies, for example the Boletin de la Sociedad de Fomento Fabril up to the 1930s and its magazine Industria thereafter, the Boletin de la Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura up to the 1930s and then its El Cam pesino, and the Boletin Minero for the Sociedad Nacional de Minerfa.Google Scholar

14 Freire, Alfonso Stephens, El irracionalismo politico en Chile (Santiago, 1957);Google ScholarMoreno, Francisco José,Legitimacy and Stability in Latin America (New York, 1969);Google ScholarBicheno, H. E., ‘Anti-Parliamentary Themes in Chilean History: 1920–70’,Government and Opposition, 7, 3 (Summer 1972), pp. 351–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

15 In general on the Ibáñez years, see Nunn, Frederick M., Chilean Politics, 1920–1931 (Albuquerque, 1970);Google ScholarPike, Fredrick B., Chile and the United States, 1880–1962 (South Bend, 1963), pp. 191–8.Google Scholar

16 Bicheno, loc.cit., especially pp. 366–9.Google Scholar

17 Moreno, René Montero, La verdad sobre lbáñez (Buenos Aires, 1953), pp. 102–33;Google ScholarMorris, James O., Elites, intellectuals, and Consensus (Ithca, 1966), especially p. 255.Google Scholar

18 On the economic catastrophe of the Great Depression, see Chile, ,Sinopsis geográfico- estadistica (Santiago, 1966‘);Google ScholarEllsworth, P. T., Chile: An Economy in Transition (New York, 1945);Google ScholarEchaíz, René León,Eiolución histórica de los partido políticos chilenos (Santiago, 1939), especially pp. 166–74.Google Scholar

19 Melfi, Domingo, Sin brújula (Santiago, 1932), pp. 17113;Google ScholarMayorga, Wilfredo, ‘Cuando Montero “se somete”’; Ercilla, 1598 (19 Jan. 1966), 18–19;Google ScholarEl Mercurio, 7 Aug.–6 Oct. 1931.Google Scholar

20 Thomas, Jack Ray, ‘The Socialist Republic of Chile’, Journal of inter-American Studies, 6, 2 (04 1964), 203–20;CrossRefGoogle ScholarLos 30 puntos (n.p., 1932). La Opinión, 5 June 1932.Google Scholar

21 Hurtado, Eugenio Matte, ‘Sobre el programa de la Nueva Acción Pública’, in Chile, , Cámara de Senadores, Boletin de sesiones extraordinarias, 1932–1933 (Santiago, 1933), pp. 395403;Google ScholarAcción (Santiago, 1932).Google ScholarPública, Nueva Acción, Declaración de principios y estatuto orgánico (Santiago, 1932).Google Scholar

22 La Opinión, 3–5 May 1932;Google ScholarDávila, Carlos G., Chile no está arruinado (n.p., 1932);Google ScholarDávila, Carlos G., North American Imperialism (New York, 1930);Google ScholarDávila, Carlos G., We of the Americas (Chicago, 1949), pp. 18, 66–8, 127–36;Google ScholarDávila, Carlos G.,Latin-American Trade Development with the United States (New York, 1928), pp. 616;Google ScholarBarros, Carlos Orrego, La organización gremial y cl poder politico (Santiago, 1932), pp. 636;Google ScholarMorales, Carlos Sáez, Recuerdos de un soldado, 3 vols. (Santiago, 1934), III, 189269.Google Scholar

23 The source for the quote from USRACH and for many details on minor parties throughout this study is Fuentes, Jordi and Cortes, Lia, Diccionario politico de Chile (Santiago, 1967), pp. 497–8.Google Scholar

24 Throughout the 1930s, many Socialists admired the APRA of Peru, the Mexican policies of Lázaro Cárdenas, and the US New Deal of Franklin Roosevelt, all political movements with functionalist approaches to national organization. Salas, Luis Cruz, Historia social de Chile: 1931–1945 (Santiago, 1969), especially p. 114.Google Scholar See the Socialist newspapers Consigna, especially April 1935 and Claridad, especially April 1938. Jobet, Julio César, El socialismo chileno a través de sus congresos (Santiago, 1965), pp. 920, 125–34;Google ScholarSocialista, Partido, 4 de junio (Santiago, 1933).Google Scholar

25 Andrews, Oscar Alvarez, Bases pam una constitución funcional (Santiago, 1932).Google Scholar

26 United States, Department of State, Decimal File Record Group 59, Santiago, Chile, 16 Feb. 1932, 825.00/33.Google Scholar

27 Socialista, Frente Funcional, Manifiesto (Santiago, 1934).Google Scholar

28 Lazo, Raól Rodríguez, Aspectos sobre centralismo y descentralización en Chile (Santiago, 1935);Google ScholarEl liberalismo (Santiago, 1939);Google ScholarMatthei, Adolfo, La agricultura en Chile y la politica agraria chilena (Santiago, 1939), pp. 37–9;Google ScholarHerrera, Roberto Vergara, Decentralizatión administrathia (Santiago, 1932);Google ScholarAdolfo, Ibáñez B., Santiago y las provincias (Valparaíso, 1936).Google Scholar

29 Conservador, Partido, Pro grarna y estatutos (Santiago, 1933).Google Scholar One Catholic Conservative defined ‘corporative reorganization’in terms of ‘autonomous and permanent associations formed by individuals who exercise the same profession or like professions, with the end of representing, protecting and favoring the multiple material and moral interests of their class, in its relations with those of other classes in society’. Such proposals were usually designed to avoid state control but were sometimes linked to state expansion. El Chileno, 15 Aug.–3 Oct. 1931; El Debate, 16 Oct. 1932;Google ScholarBoizard, Ricardo, Hacia el ideal politico de una juventud (Santiago, 1935), pp. 43–5;Google ScholarGumucio, Rafael Luis, El deber politico (Santiago, 1933);Google ScholarCarrión, Marcial Sanfuentes, El Partido Conservador (Santiago, 1957), pp. 57102;Google ScholarMorris, Elites, pp. 126–207.Google Scholar

30 Bartolomé, Palacios M., El Partido Conservador y la democracia cristiana (Santiago,1933);Google ScholarUrquieta, Pedro Lira, El futuro del pais y el Partido Conservador (Santiago, 1934).Google Scholar

31 Jordán, Gabriel Amunátegui, El liberalismo y su misión social (Santiago, 1933);Google ScholarLiberl, Partido, Quinta convención (Santiago, 1932).Google Scholar

32 Edwards, Augustín, Las corporaciones y la doctrina liberal (Santiago, 1934).Google Scholar See also Liberal, Partido, Programa y estatuto (Santiago, 1934)Google Scholar and Liberal, Partido, La crisis (Santiago, 1932).Google Scholar

33 Bicheno, loc.cit., pp. 373–81.Google ScholarEl movimiento nacional-socialisia de Chile (Santiago, 1932).Google ScholarEl movimiento nacional-socialista cia Chile (Santiago, 1933);Google Scholarvon Marées, Jorge González, La concepción nacista del estado (Santiago, 1934);Google Scholarvon Marées, Jorge González, La mentira democrática (Santiago, 1936);Google Scholarvon Marées, Jorge González, La hora de la decisión (Santiago, 1937);Google ScholarMayorga, Wilfredo, ‘Jorge González von Marées’, Ercilla, 1740 (23–29 10. 1968), 41–2;Google ScholarMayorga, Wilfredo, ‘La fugaz violencia del nacismo’, Ercilla, 1611 (20 04 1966), 1859.Google Scholar

34 Bicheno loc. cit.,Google ScholarAgrario, Partido, Declaración de principios y programa (Temuco, 1934);Google ScholarAgrario, Partido, Acción corporativa (Chillán, 1941).Google Scholar¿Quées el Partido Agrario? (Talca, 1935).Google Scholar

35 Unión Republicana, Declaraciones de sus juntas generales de directorios (Santiago, [1936?]).Google ScholarIbáñez, B., Santiago.Google Scholar

36 Poisson, Jorge de la Cuadra, La verdad dc las incidencias milicianas (Santiago, 1935);Google Scholarde Chile, Acción Nacionalista, Ideología (Santiago, 1932);Google ScholarLa Milicia Republicana, Albúm conmemorativo de su presentación pública (Santiago, 1933);Google ScholarAcción Republicana, Programa y estatutos (Santiago, 1937);Google ScholarJerman, Spoerer C., Simbiosis del capital y el trabajo (Santiago, 1938).Google Scholar

37 Chile, , Dirección General de Estadística, Politica, administración, justicia y educación (Santiago, 1938), p. 5.Google Scholar

38 Grayson, George W. Jr, El Partido Demócrata Cristiano Chileno (Buenos Aires, 1968), pp. 6471, 103–12.Google Scholar

39 Vitale, Luis, Escencia y apariencia de la democracia cristiana (Santiago, 1964), pp. 5960;Google ScholarGrayson, op.cit. pp. 64–112.Google Scholar

40 Halperin, Ernst, Nationalism and Communism in Chile (Cambridge, 1965), pp. 579–85.Google Scholar Through functional organization and greater charity toward the workers,‘the property owners, with a spirit of equity and justice, must anticipate events and, by pacific means, solve social conflicts and adapt themselves to new realities…’ Contreras, Guillermo Viviani, Sociologla chilena (Santiago, 1926), especially pp. 528–205;Google ScholarPike, Chile, pp. 595–5.Google Scholar

41 Mayorga, Wilfredo, ‘El jesuita rebelde’; Ercilla, 1713 (17 04 1968), 15.Google Scholar

42 Grayson, Op.Cit. pp. 90–94;Google ScholarBoizard, Ricardo, La democracia cristiana en Chile (Santiago, 1963), pp. 200202.Google Scholar

43 Boizard, La democracia, pp. 36–7, 107–79,200–202;Google ScholarGrupo Universitario Renovación (Santiago, 1932);Google ScholarBoizard, Ricardo, Doctrinas sociales (Santiago, 1933), pp. 414;Google ScholarVives, Alberto Edwards and Montalva, Eduardo Frei, Historia de los partidos politicos chilenos (Santiago, 1949), pp. 242–3.Google Scholar

44 Mayorga, Wilfredo, ‘El camino a la Moneda’, Ercilla, 1588 (27 10. 1965), 1415;Google ScholarBoizard, Ricardo, Cuatro retratos en profundidad (Santiago, 1950), pp. 169214;Google ScholarGil, Federico G., The Political System of Chile (Boston, 1966), p. 267;Google ScholarHalperin, Op. cit., pp. 182–90;Google ScholarGrayson, op. Cit., pp. 514–73;Google ScholarMontalva, Eduardo Frei, Chile desconocido (Santiago, 1937);Google ScholarVitale, loc. cit., pp. 71–2;Google ScholarVelasco, Jaime Castillo, Las fuentes de la democracia cristiana (2nd ed., Santiago, 1968), especially pp. 507–77.Google Scholar

45 United States, Department of State, 29 March 1939, 825.00/1136.Google Scholar

46 Industria, 19381939.Google ScholarMamalakis, Markos and Reynolds, Clark Winton, Essays on the Chilean Economy (Yale University, 1965);Google ScholarKenworthy, Eldon, ‘Coalitions in the Political Development of Latin America’, in Groennings, Sven et al. , The Study of Coalition Behavior (New York, 1970), pp. 103–40;Google ScholarArriagada, Genaro, La oligarquia patronal chilena (Santiago, 1970), especially pp. 2935;Google ScholarDrake, Paul V., ‘The Political Responses of the Chilean Upper Class to the Great Depression and the Threat of Socialism, 1931–1933’, in Jaher, Frederick Cople, The Rich, the Well Born, and the Powerful (Urbana, 1973), pp. 304–37.Google Scholar

47 Menges, loc.cit., pp. 348–51.Google Scholar

48 Sesión inaugural de la con uención de la producción y del comercio (Santiago, 1934).Google Scholar Also see Las fueras productoras ante la elección presidencial (Santiago, 1938), in which the members of the Confederation publicly campaigned against the Popular Front rather than leave the election fully in the hands of right-wing parties.Google Scholar

49 Sesión inaugural.Google Scholar

50 Matthei, op.Cit., pp. 45–233;Google ScholarKindermann, Erico Hott, Las sociedades agrícolas nacionales y su influsencia en la agricultura de Chile (Santiago, 1944), pp. 1697;Google ScholarMcBride, George M., Chile: Land and Society (New York, 1936), pp. 129–81, 229–71, 373–82;Google ScholarLa Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura, Boletin (July–Dec. 1932);Google ScholarArriagada, op.cit., pp. 27–32, 49–82; El Campesino (April–July 1938).Google Scholar

51 La Sociedad de Fabril, Fomento, Boletin (1932).Google ScholarLa Sociedad de Fomento Fabril de Chile (Santiago, 1935). Las fuerzas passim.Google Scholar

52 Andrews, Oscar Alvarez, Historia del desarrollo industrial de Chile (Santiago, 1936), pp. 350–51.Google Scholar

52 Garcia, op. Cit., pp. 111 ff;Google ScholarDrake, op. cit., pp. 319–32;Google ScholarMattelart, Armand et al. , La ideo logia de la dominación en una sociedad dependiente (Buenos Aires, 1970).Google Scholar

54 La Organización Política, Económica y Social de la Clase Media, Programa minimo provisional (Valparaíso, 1934);Google Scholar La Confederación de Trabajadores de Chile, , Treinta meses de acción en favor del proletariado de Chile (Santiago, 1939);Google ScholarAngell, Alan, Politics and the Labour Movement in Chile (London, 1972), especially pp. 78, 40–42, 108–9; Claridad, 10–15 April 1938;Google ScholarMorris, James O. and Roberto, Oyaneder C., Afihiación y finanzas sindicales en Chile, 1932–1959 (Santiago, 1962), pp. 57–25;Google ScholarBarría, Jorge, El movimiento obrero en Chile (Santiago, 1971), especially pp. 85–8.Google Scholar

55 Stevenson, John Reese, The Chilean Popular Front (Philadelphia, 1942);Google ScholarLechner, Norbert, La democracia en Chile (Buenos Aires, 1970);Google ScholarBarría, op.cit., pp. 68–72;Google ScholarPinto, Aníbal, ‘Desar rollo económico y relaciones sociales’, in Pinto, Aníbal et al. , Chile, hoy (Mexico, 1970), pp. 552.Google Scholar

56 Corporación de Fomento de la Producción, Cinco an¯os de labor, 1939–1943 (Santiago, 1944), pp. 956;Google ScholarEllsworth, op.cit., pp. 91–3.Google Scholar

57 Industria (June 1939), p. 379;Google ScholarLa Sociedad Nacional de Minería, Boletin Minero (April 1939), p. 287–311.Google Scholar

58 El Campesino (Jan–May 1939);Google ScholarHott, pp. 21–2;Google ScholarLechner, especially pp. 57–85.Google Scholar

59 Primera Convención de las Provincias de Chile, , Un paso hacia Ia descentralización administrativa del pais ([Valparaiso?], [1946?]).Google Scholar

60 del Campo, Carlos Ibáñez, Programa presidcncial (Santiago, 1938);Google ScholarMayorga, Wilfredo, ‘El golpe de estado de 1939’, Ercilla 1701 (24 01. 1968), 15;Google ScholarRíos, Leonidas Bravo, Lo que supo an auditor de guerra (Santiago, 1955), pp. 123–41.Google Scholar

61 For example, see Sergio, Vergara V., Decadencia o recuperación (Santiago, 1945).Google Scholar

62 Mayoga, Wilfredo, ‘La derecha deseaba la dictadura’, Ercilla, 1693 (29 11. 1967), 15.Google Scholar

63 Bicheno, loc. cit., pp. 381–3;Google ScholarNunn, Frederick M.,‘New Thoughts on Military Intervention in Latin American Politics: The Chilean Case, 1973’, journal of Latin American Studies, 7 (11. 1975),271304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

64 García, op.cit., pp. 119–24.Google Scholar

65 Bicheno, loc.cit., pp. 383–5;Google ScholarNunn, ‘New Thoughts’, pp. 274–6;Google ScholarBravo, Arturo Olavarría, Chile entre dos Alessandri, 4 vols. (Santiago, 1962, 1965), II, 6397;Google Scholardel Campo, Carlos Ibáñez, Lo que haremos por Chile (Santiago, 1952);Google ScholarHalperin, op.cit., pp. 128–31.Google Scholar

66 Barría, op.cit., pp. 108–9, 127–30.Google Scholar

67 Castillo, op.cit., Vitale, op.cit., pp. 115–16;Google ScholarLechner, op.cit., pp. 86–91;Google ScholarGil, op.cit. pp. 269–70;Google ScholarGrayson, op.Cit., pp. 311–13;Google ScholarFrei, Eduardo, Pensamiento y acción (Santiago, 1958);Google ScholarPetras, James, Politics and Social Forces in Chilean Development (Berkeley, 1970), pp. 247–50.Google Scholar

68 Halperin, op.cit., pp. 192–5;Google ScholarGrayson, op.cit., pp. 351–4;Google ScholarGil, op.cit., pp. 298–312.Google Scholar

69 Petras, op.cit., pp. 198–250;Google ScholarSocialista, Partido, Frei no es Chile (Santiago, 1966).Google Scholar

70 Petras, op.cit., pp. 198–250.Google Scholar

71 Ibid., pp. 398–250.

72 García, op.cit., pp. 125–34.Google Scholar

73 Grayson, op.cit., pp. 437–9;Google ScholarCarrasco, Ramón Venegas, Organizaciones de base y cuerpos intermedios (Santiago, 1966).Google Scholar

74 Menges, loc.cit., especially pp. 353–64;Google ScholarGarcía, op. cit., especially pp. 109–13.Google Scholar

76 The sections on the Allende years rely to some extent on my own observations during residence in Chile, 1969–70, 1973. For the 1970 election, see Feinberg, Richard E., The Trimph of Allende (New York, 1972);Google ScholarPopular, Unidad, Programa básico de gobierno de la Unidad Popular (Santiago, 1970);Google ScholarAllende, Salvador, Su pensamiento politico (Santiago, 1972);Google ScholarDebray, Regis, The Chilean Revolution (New York, 1971);Google ScholarJohnson, Dale L., The Chilean Road to Socialism (Garden City, 1973);Google ScholarZammit, J. Ann, The Chilean Road to Socialism (Austin, 1973).Google Scholar

77 Wiarda, op.cit., p. 4;Google ScholarDebray, op.cit.;Google ScholarMillas, Hernán and Filippi, Emilio, Chile ‘70–’73: crónica de una experiencia (Santiago, 1974);Google ScholarHobsbawm, Eric J., ‘Chile: Year One’, New York Review of Books, 17, 4 (23 09. 1975), 2332;Google ScholarNorth American Congress on Latin America, New Chile (n.p., 1972).Google Scholar

78 Hoy, Chile, Nos. 60 and 61, (Aug. 1973);Google ScholarTarea Urgente, 1973;Google ScholarBetty, and Petras, James F., ‘Ballots into Bullets’, Ramparts, 12, 4 (11. 1973), 21–8, 59–62;Google ScholarLa tragedia chilena: testimonios (Buenos Aires, 1973), especially P. 386–7.Google Scholar

79 Bicheno, loc.cit., especially pp. 386–7.Google Scholar

80 Ibid., pp. 386–7. La Tercera de la Hora, 12 July 1973. Ideological antecedents of the FNPL could be found in the MNS of the 1930S, the MNCH of the 59405, and minor coup conspiracies in the 1940$ and 1950$. Another tiny party precursor was the allegedly neo-fascist Revolutionary National Syndical Movement, with roots back to 1947. The Movement opposed both the Frei government and communism, preached gremialism, worked with the traditional Right, and disappeared after being made illegal in 1964 because of charges that it was a totalitarian Nazi party.

81 Arriagada, op. cit., especially p. 39;Google ScholarGarcía, op. cit.; Bicheno, op. cit.Google Scholar

82 García, op. cit.; Millas and Fiippi, op. cit.Google Scholar

83 Betty and James F. Petras, loc. cit.;Google ScholarNunn, ‘New Thoughts’, pp. 271–304;Google ScholarBirns, Laurence, The End of Chilean Democracy (New York, 1974);Google ScholarEvans, Les, Disaster in Chile (New York, 1974).Google Scholar

84 All the comments on the junta draw on information from the British weekly newsletter, Latin America, 1973–1976. Also useful are ‘Non-Intervention in Chile’, Chile Newsletter, 1973–1976, and the Chilean Embassy publication, Chile Today, 1974–1976; Chile en la Resistencia (Mexico), 1974;Google Scholarde Gobierno, Chile La Junta, Declaración de principios del gobierno de Chile (Santiago, 1974);Google Scholarde Gobierno, Chile Secretaria General, Libro blanco dcl cambio de gobierno en Chile (2nd ed., Santiago, 1973);Google ScholarAugusto Pinochet Ugarte, Un an¯o de construcción, (Santiago, 1974), 468–71;Google ScholarFuerzas Armadas y Carabineros, Septiembre de 1973 (Santiago, 1974);Google ScholarSáenz, Orlando, ‘Chile a los 16 meses: cómo seguir?Vision, 3 (1975), 1618;Google ScholarBlanco, Hugo et al. , La tragedia chilena (Buenos Aires, 1973);Google ScholarBirns, op. cit., Schmitter, ‘Still the Century’, pp. 102–27.Google Scholar

85 Chile, La Junta, op. cit.; Nunn, ‘New Thoughts’, pp. 271–304;Google ScholarLinz, ‘The Future’, pp. 240–54; O'Donnell, loc. cit.;Google ScholarSolaún, Mauricio and Quinn, Michael A., Sinners and Heretics: The Politics of Military Intervention in Latin America (Urbana, 1973);Google ScholarHuntington, Samuel P., Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, 1968);Google ScholarSweezy, Paul M. and Magdoff, Harry (eds.), Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Chile (New York and London, 1974).Google Scholar