Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-g7rbq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-27T13:27:58.478Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

New Punitiveness on the Move: How the US Prison Model and Penal Policy Arrived in Colombia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 October 2018

JULIE DE DARDEL Open the ORCID record for JULIE DE DARDEL [Opens in a new window]  and
OLA SÖDERSTRÖM
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Within the neocolonial context of ‘Plan Colombia’ in the early 2000s, agents of the US Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) took up position in the heart of the Colombian penitentiary administration to lead a reform based on the United States’ ultra-punitive penal regime. This paper analyses how the reform was set up on the ground, shedding light on the partially divergent expectations of the two governments. Drawing on recent literature on the mobility of policies and built forms, the paper argues that the introduction of US-inspired prisons in Colombia is a striking case where a mobile policy and a travelling architectural type coincided and complemented each other.

Spanish abstract

En el contexto neo-colonial del ‘Plan Colombia’ a principios del 2000, agentes del estadounidense Buró Federal de Prisiones (BOP por sus siglas en inglés) se asentaron en el corazón de la administración penitenciaria de Colombia para liderar reformas basadas en el régimen penitenciario ultra-punitivo de los EEUU. Este artículo analiza cómo las reformas fueron aplicadas en el terreno, mostrando las expectativas parcialmente divergentes de los dos gobiernos. Apoyándose en literatura reciente sobre la movilidad de políticas y modelos arquitectónicos, el artículo argumenta que en Colombia las prisiones inspiradas desde la experiencia estadounidense son un caso prominente donde una política móvil y un prototipo arquitectónico coincidieron y se complementaron entre sí.

Portuguese abstract

Dentro do contexto neocolonial do ‘Plano Colômbia’ no começo dos anos 2000, agentes do Departamento Federal de Prisões (BOP) dos Estados Unidos se posicionaram no centro da administração penitenciária da Colômbia a fim de liderar uma reforma baseada no regime penal ultra-punitivo dos Estados Unidos. Este artigo analisa como esta reforma foi estabelecida na prática, revelando as expectativas parcialmente divergentes dos governos dos dois países. Servindo-se de documentos recentes sobre a mobilidade de políticas e modelos arquitetônicos, este artigo argumenta que a introdução de prisões na Colômbia inspiradas no modelo americano é um exemplo notável no qual uma política móvel e um modelo arquitetônico itinerante coincidiram e se complementaram mutuamente

Keywords

new punitivenessmass imprisonmentsupermax prisonspolicy mobilitiesPlan Colombiacarceral geographynuevas medidas punitivasencarcelamiento masivoprisiones supermaxpolíticas transferiblesPlan Colombiageografía carcelarianovas penalizaçõesaprisionamento em massasuper prisõespolítica de mobilidadesPlan Colombiageografia carcerária
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Latin American Studies , Volume 50 , Issue 4 , November 2018 , pp. 833 - 860
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This research has benefited from a grant from the Swiss National Research Foundation (SNF division 1, grant no. 100013-124454-1, ‘International Circulation of the US Prison Model: Impacts in Colombia’).

References

1 Adam Isacson, ‘Don't Call It a Model. On Plan Colombia's Tenth Anniversary, Claims of “Success” Don't Stand Up to Scrutiny’, Washington Office on Latin America, 13 July 2010.

2 Pécaut, Daniel, ‘Entre pragmatisme et violence. Les stratégies des “mafias” colombiennes de la drogue’, Politix, 13: 49 (2000), pp. 77–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Between 1999 and 2012, the US government invested US$140 million in the Colombian justice sector, of which US$7 million were used for the provision of technical assistance in the penitentiary system (US Embassy in Colombia, Programa de reforma al sector de la justicia, 2012, available at https://co.usembassy.gov/es/embassy-es/bogota-es/sections-offices-es/department-justice-es/ (last access 2 July 2018)).

4 On the rise of penal populism and the dramatic expansion of the prison population in Latin America see Dammert, Lucia and Salazar, Felipe, ¿Duro con el delito? Populismo e inseguridad en América Latina (Santiago de Chile: FLACSO, 2009)Google Scholar; Hathazy, Paul, ‘(Re)-shaping the Neoliberal Leviathan: The Politics of Penalty and Welfare in Argentina, Chile and Peru’, European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 95 (2013), pp. 5–25Google Scholar; Müller, Markus-Michael, ‘The Rise of the Penal State in Latin America’, Contemporary Justice Review, 15: 1 (2012), pp. 57–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an examination of the complex causes of the punitive turn in Latin America beyond the impact of the neoliberal reforms, see Sozzo, Máximo (ed.), Postneoliberalismo y penalidad en América del Sur (Buenos Aires: CLACSO, 2016)Google Scholar and Iturralde, Manuel, ‘Colombian Prisons as a Core Institution of Authoritarian Liberalism’, Crime, Law and Social Change, 65: 3 (2016), pp. 137–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 On the toughening of the penal system through the criminalisation of conducts that were previously ignored, the increase in prison sentences and the reduction in prison benefits (access to alternative measures such as probation and parole, house detention and electronic surveillance) see Iturralde, ‘Colombian Prisons’, pp. 154–5 and Michael Reed Hurtado, ‘El camino irreflexivo de la cárcel en Colombia: Un cuento de delirios y despelotes’, paper presented at the ‘Leyes, Penas y Cárceles’ Conference, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 21–2 Feb. 2012, available at http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Michael%20Reed%20Hurtado_0.pdf, last access 2 July 2018.

6 Source INPEC, quoted by Iturralde, ‘Colombian Prisons’, p. 138.

7 There is of course no such thing as ‘the’ US prison model, since the US prison system is a heterogeneous archipelago of facilities operating at several levels (municipal, county, state and federal), and following a variety of security and design approaches. In our case, the ‘US prison model’ refers in particular to the architecture, prison policies, internal procedures and training techniques copied from the Federal complex of Coleman and presented to the Colombian government by the BOP as a model to follow.

8 Peck, Jamie and Theodore, Nik, ‘Mobilizing Policy: Models, Methods and Mutations’, Geoforum, 41: 2 (2010), pp. 169−74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCann, Eugene J. and Ward, Kevin, Mobile Urbanism: Cities and Policymaking in the Global Age (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2011)Google Scholar; McFarlane, Colin, Learning the City. Knowledge and Translocal Assemblage (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robinson, Jennifer, ‘“Arriving at” Urban Policies/the Urban: Traces of Elsewhere in Making City Futures’, in Söderström, Ola, Randeria, Shalini, Ruedin, Didier, d'Amato, Gianni and Panese, Francesco (eds.), Critical Mobilities (London: Routledge, 2013), pp. 1–28Google Scholar.

9 Nasr, Joe and Volait, Mercedes, Urbanism – Imported or Exported? Native Aspirations and Foreign Plans (London: John Wiley, 2003)Google Scholar; King, Anthony D., Spaces of Global Culture: Architecture, Urbanism, Identity (London: Routledge, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Guggenheim, Michael and Söderström, Ola (eds.), Re-shaping Cities: How Global Mobility Transforms Architecture and Urban Form (London: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar; Faulconbridge, James R., ‘Global Architects: Learning and Innovation through Communities and Constellations of Practice’, Environment and Planning A, 42: 12 (2010), pp. 2842−58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jacobs, Jane M. and Lees, Loretta, ‘Defensible Space on the Move: Revisiting the Urban Geography of Alice Coleman’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37: 5 (2013), pp. 1559−83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 McCann, Eugene J., ‘Expertise, Truth, and Urban Policy Mobilities: Global Circuits of Knowledge in the Development of Vancouver, Canada's “Four Pillar” Drug Strategy’, Environment and Planning A, 40: 4 (2008), pp. 885–904CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Langer, Maximo, ‘Revolution in Latin American Criminal Procedure: Diffusion of Legal Ideas from the Periphery’, The American Journal of Comparative Law, 55: 4 (2007), pp. 617−76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Söderström, Ola, Cities in Relations: Trajectories of Urban Change in Hanoi and Ouagadougou (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Pratt, John, Brown, David, Brown, Mark, Hallsworth, Simon and Morrisson, Wayne, New Punitiveness. Trends, Theories, Perspectives (Oxford: Routledge, 2011)Google Scholar.

13 This means that we do not focus on prison design per se but rather on its transnational circulation.

14 Rhodes, Lorna A., ‘Toward an Anthropology of Prisons’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30 (2001), p. 72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wacquant, Loïc, ‘The Curious Eclipse of Prison Ethnography in the Age of Mass Incarceration’, Ethnography, 3: 4 (2002), p. 387CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15 Bear, Leonard, ‘Visual Imprints on the Prison Landscape. A Study on the Decorations in Prison Cells’, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 96: 2 (2005), pp. 209–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar; de Dardel, Julie, Exporter la prison américaine. Le système carcéral colombien à l’ère du tournant punitif (Neuchâtel: Alphil Presses Universitaires Suisse, 2016)Google Scholar; Dirsuweit, Teresa, ‘Bodies, State Discipline, and the Performance of Gender in a South African Women's Prison’, in Nelson, Lise and Saeger, Joni (eds.), A Companion to Feminist Geography (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 350–62Google Scholar; Moran, Dominique, Gill, Nick and Conlon, Deirdre (eds.), Carceral Spaces: Mobility and Agency in Imprisonment and Migrant Detention (Farnham and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2013)Google Scholar; Milhaud, Olivier, Séparer et punir. Une géographie des prisons françaises (Paris: CNRS, 2017)Google Scholar; Moran, Dominique, Carceral Geography: Spaces and Practices of Incarceration (Ashgate, Farnham and Burlington, VT: Routledge, 2015)Google Scholar; Peck, Jamie, ‘Geography and Public Policy: Mapping the Penal State’, Progress in Human Geography, 27: 2 (2003), pp. 222–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sibley, David and van Hoven, Bettina, ‘The Contamination of Personal Space: Boundary Construction in a Prison Environment’, Area, 41: 2 (2008), pp. 198–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 Fundación Comité de Solidaridad con los Presos Políticos (Foundation Committee in Solidarity with Political Prisoners, FCSPP; more information on this NGO is available at www.comitedesolidaridad.com/multimedia).

17 Due to the highly sensitive nature of this topic, the interviewees mentioned in this paper have been anonymised to protect their integrity and safety.

18 Peck and Theodore, ‘Mobilizing Policy’; McCann and Ward, Mobile Urbanism.

19 McCann, Eugene J. and Ward, Kevin, ‘Relationality/Territoriality: Toward a Conceptualisation of Cities in the World’, Geoforum, 41: 2 (2010), pp. 175−84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCann, Eugene J., ‘Urban Policy Mobilities and Global Circuits of Knowledge: Toward a Research Agenda’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 101: 1 (2011), pp. 107−30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Peck, Jamie, ‘Geographies of Policy: From Transfer-Diffusion to Mobility-Mutation’, Progress in Human Geography, 35: 6 (2011), pp. 773−97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; ‘Debates and Developments’ section on urban policy mobilities research in the International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 39: 4 (2015), pp. 824–84Google Scholar.

20 Allen, John and Cochrane, Allan, ‘Assemblages of State Power: Topological Shifts in the Organization of Government and Politics’, Antipode, 42: 5 (2010), pp. 1071–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robinson, ‘“Arriving at” Urban Policies/the Urban’.

21 Roy, Ananya and Ong, Aihwa, Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Söderström, Ola and Geertman, Stéphanie, ‘Loose Threads: The Translocal Making of Public Space Policy in Hanoi’, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 34 (2013), pp. 244−60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22 Saunier, Pierre-Yves, ‘Taking Up the Bet on Connections: A Municipal Contribution’, Contemporary European History, 11: 4 (2002), pp. 507−27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Saunier, Pierre-Yves and Ewen, Shane, Another Global City: Historical Explorations into the Transnational Municipal Moment, 1850–2000 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Saunier, ‘Taking Up the Bet on Connections’; Nasr and Volait, Urbanism; Saunier, and Ewen, , Another Global City; Patsy Healey and Robert Upton, Crossing Borders: International Exchanges and Planning Practices (London: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar; Healey, Patsy, ‘The Universal and the Contingent: Some Reflections on the Transnational Flow of Planning Ideas and Practices’, Planning Theory, 11: 2 (2012), pp. 188–207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Clarke, Nick, ‘Urban Policy Mobility, Anti-politics, and Histories of the Transnational Municipal Movement’, Progress in Human Geography, 36: 1 (2012), pp. 25–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harris, Andrew and Moore, Susan, ‘Planning Histories and Practices of Circulating Urban Knowledge’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37: 5 (2013), pp. 1499–1509CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Cook, Ian R., Ward, Stephen V. and Ward, Kevin, ‘A Springtime Journey to the Soviet Union: Postwar Planning and Policy Mobilities through the Iron Curtain’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 38: 3 (2014), pp. 805−22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26 Söderström, Cities in Relations.

27 King, Anthony D., The Bungalow: The Production of a Global Culture (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984)Google Scholar; Spaces of Global Culture; Jacobs, Jane M., ‘A Geography of Big Things’, Cultural Geographies, 13: 1 (2006), pp. 1–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McNeill, Donald, The Global Architect. Firms, Fame and Urban Form (London: Routledge, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Faulconbridge, ‘Global Architects’; ‘Mobile “Green” Design Knowledge: Institutions, Bricolage and the Relational Production of Embedded Sustainable Building Designs’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38: 2 (2012), pp. 339–53Google Scholar.

28 See for instance Roy and Ong (eds.), Worlding Cities.

29 See for instance Guggenheim and Söderström (eds.), Re-shaping Cities; Jacobs and Lees, ‘Defensible Space on the Move’.

30 McCann, ‘Urban Policy Mobilities’, pp. 118−19.

31 Faulconbridge, ‘Mobile “Green” Design Knowledge’, p. 340.

32 McCann, ‘Urban Policy Mobilities’, p. 120.

33 Ibid., pp. 118–20.

34 Ward, Kevin, ‘Entrepreneurial Urbanism, Policy Tourism and the Making of Mobile Policies’, in Bridge, Gary and Watson, Sophie (eds.), The New Blackwell Companion to the City (London: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 726–37Google Scholar; Cook et al., ‘A Springtime Journey to the Soviet Union’; Gonzalez, Sara, ‘Bilbao and Barcelona “in Motion”. How Urban Regeneration “Models” Travel and Mutate in the Global Flows of Policy Tourism’, Urban Studies, 48 (2011), pp. 1397–1418CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Jacobs, Jane M., ‘Urban Geographies I: Still Thinking Cities Relationally’, Progress in Human Geography, 36: 3 (2012), p. 414CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 On the notion of ‘friction’ as a counter-force that slows down or alters mobility processes, see Cresswell, Tim, ‘Friction’, in Adey, Peter et al. (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Mobilities (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 107–15Google Scholar.

37 Faulconbridge, ‘Mobile “Green” Design Knowledge’; Healey, Patsy, ‘Circuits of Knowledge and Techniques: The Transnational Flow of Planning Ideas and Practices’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 37: 5 (2013), pp. 1510−26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 Faulconbridge, ‘Mobile “Green” Design Knowledge’, p. 342.

39 Dikötter, Frank, ‘Introduction’, in Dikötter, Frank and Brown, Ian (eds.), Cultures of Confinement. A History of the Prison in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007), p. 6Google Scholar.

40 Garland, David, Mass Imprisonment. Social Causes and Consequences (London: Sage, 2001)Google Scholar.

41 Wacquant, Loïc, ‘The Great Penal Leap Backward: Incarceration in America from Nixon to Clinton’, in Pratt, John (ed.), New Punitiveness: Current Trends, Theories, Perspectives (London: Willan, 2005)Google Scholar; The Prisons of Poverty (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

42 Wacquant, Loïc, ‘Crafting the Neoliberal State: Workfare, Prisonfare, and Social Insecurity’, Sociological Forum, 25: 2 (2010), pp. 197–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

43 Garland, David, The Culture of Control: Crime and Order in Contemporary Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

44 Christie, Nils, Crime Control as Industry: Towards Gulags, Western Style (London: Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar; Garland, The Culture of Control; Peck, Jamie, ‘Geography and Public Policy: Mapping the Penal State’, Progress in Human Geography, 27: 2 (2003), pp. 222−32CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wacquant, Loïc, ‘Penal Truth Comes to Europe: Think Tanks and the “Washington Consensus” on Crime and Punishment’, in Gilligan, George and Pratt, John (eds.), Crime, Truth, and Justice: Official Inquiry, Discourse, Knowledge (London: Willan, 2004), pp. 161–80Google Scholar; Newburn, Tim and Sparks, Richard (eds.), Criminal Justice and Political Cultures: National and International Dimensions of Crime Control (London: Willan, 2004)Google Scholar; Melossi, Dario, Sozzo, Maximo and Sparks, Richard (eds.), Travels of the Criminal Question: Cultural Embeddedness and Diffusion (Oxford and Portland, OR: Hart, 2011)Google Scholar.

45 Garland, The Culture of Control, p. 61. ‘Incapacitation’, within the criminal justice system, refers to the removal of an offender's ability to commit future crimes by use of imprisonment rather than rehabilitation or prevention.

46 Architects/Designers/Planners for Social Responsibility (ADPSR), ‘Prison Towns’, 2004, available at http://www.adpsr.org/home/prison_towns (last access 21 May 2018); Gilmore, Ruth W., Golden Gulag. Prison, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

47 Series of four interviews with US prison architects (conducted in California, 13 May 2011; in New York, 16 June 2011; in North Carolina, 17 June 2011; in Florida, 20 June 2011).

48 Reiter, Keramet, ‘The Origins of and Need to Control Supermax Prisons’, California Journal of Politics and Policy, 5: 2 (2013), pp. 146−67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49 Ross, Jeffrey I., ‘The Invention of the American Supermax Prison’, in Ross, Jeffrey I. (ed.), The Globalization of Supermax Prisons (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013), p. 11Google Scholar; Reiter, Keramet, ‘Parole, Snitch, or Die: California's Supermax Prisons and Prisoners, 1987–2007’, Punishment and Society, 14: 5 (2012), p. 550CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Kurki, Leena and Morris, Norval, ‘The Purposes, Practices and Problems of Supermax Prisons’, Crime and Justice, 28 (2001), pp. 385–424CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 Prison architect and former head of the INPEC Civil Engineering Office, interviewed in Bogotá, 20 May 2011.

52 ‘Programa de mejoramiento del sistema penitenciario colombiano, Apéndice 11 al Anexo al Acuerdo general para asistencia económica, técnica y otras asistencias relacionadas entre el Gobierno de los Estados Unidos y el Gobierno de la República de Colombia, Convenio Interinstitucional del 31 de marzo de 2000’; ‘Programa de mejoramiento del sistema penitenciario colombiano’, 9 de julio de 2001.

53 Akrich, Madeleine, ‘The De-scription of Technical Objects’, in Bijker, Wiebe E. and Law, John (eds.), Shaping Technology/Building Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992), pp. 205–24Google Scholar.

54 Ola Söderström, ‘What Traveling Urban Types Do: Postcolonial Modernization on Two Globalizing Cities’, in Söderström et al. (eds.), Critical Mobilities, pp. 29–57.

55 ‘Programa de mejoramiento del sistema penitenciario colombiano’, 31 de marzo 2000 and 9 de julio de 2001.

56 The Coleman Federal Correctional Complex (one of the largest in the nation, hosting more than 7,000 inmates) is a recent construction built in the 1990s. The site comprises five different prison facilities according to BOP typology, including two maximum-security prisons: United States Penitentiary 1 and 2 (USP 1 and 2), hosting approx. 1,400 inmates each. Each USP at Coleman contains six housing units and an additional Secure Housing Unit (SHU), or ‘supermax’ unit (de Dardel, Exporter la prison américaine, p. 118).

57 Wilkey, William and Rivera, Guillermo, ‘Plan Colombia: A Successful Long-Term Effort’, Corrections Today, 64: 7 (2002)Google Scholar, available at http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-95689181/plan-colombia-a-successful-long-term-effort-nic (last access 21 May 2018).

58 Caracol Radio, ‘En los últimos 13 años han sido extraditados más de 1.200 colombianos a EEUU: Michael McKinley’, 13 Oct. 2011, available at http://www.caracol.com.co/noticias/internacional/en-los-ultimos-13anos-han-sido-extraditados-mas-de-1200-colombianos-a-eeuu-michael-mckinley/20111013/nota/1561618.aspx (last access 21 May 2018).

59 Corte Constitucional de Colombia: Sentencia T-153/98, 1998, available at www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/1998/T-153-98.htm (last access 21 May 2018).

60 Ministerio de Justicia de Colombia, Memorias al Congreso de la República 1999–2000, Bogotá, 2000.

61 El Tiempo, ‘Así es la cárcel de alta seguridad de Cómbita’, 2 Aug. 2002, available at www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-1308418 (last access 21 May 2018).

62 Leader of a warders’ trade union, interviewed in Bogotá, 5 Aug. 2011.

63 After a decrease in the overcrowding rate due to the opening of the six new prisons (it fell from 40 per cent in 1999 to 16 per cent in 2002), overcrowding increased again significantly to reach 39 per cent in 2005. Then, after another temporary reduction, the overcrowding rate rose steadily again from 2008 to 2013, reaching its all-time high with 58 per cent in 2013. Meanwhile, the prison population increased fourfold (from 29,343 in 1994 to 120,032 inmates in 2013) (source INPEC, quoted by Iturralde, ‘Colombian Prisons’, p. 138).

64 Wacquant, The Prisons of Poverty; Punishing the Poor.

65 Source INPEC, quoted by de Dardel, Exporter la prison américaine, p. 43.

66 In 2011, the net secondary school enrolment rate was 76 per cent. Source: World Bank, Indicators: Progression to secondary school; School enrolment, 2011, available at http://data.worldbank.org/indicator.

67 Chaparro, Sergio, Correa, Catalina Pérez and Youngers, Coletta, Castigos irracionales: Leyes de drogas y encarcelamiento en América Latina (Mexico City: CEDD, 2017)Google Scholar; Uprimny, Rodrigo et al. (eds.), Mujeres, políticas de drogas y encarcelamiento (Bogotá: Dejusticia, 2016)Google Scholar.

68 Iturralde, ‘Colombian Prisons’, pp. 154–5.

69 Iturralde, Manuel, ‘Democracies without Citizenship: Crime and Punishment in Latin America’, New Criminal Law Review, 13: 2 (2010), p. 322Google Scholar.

70 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Study on Homicide (Vienna: United Nations Publication, 2013)Google Scholar. Manuel Iturralde indicates however that the total number of crimes reported by the Colombian police rose significantly during this period (‘Colombian Prisons’, p. 137), but police-reported crimes are primarily a measurement of the intensity of police work following the implementation of ‘mano dura’ (iron fist) policies under Álvaro Uribe's far-right administration from 2002 to 2010 (see Law 890 of 2004 and Law 1142 of 2007). Despite the liberal emphasis of Juan Manuel Santos’ government since 2010, the new administration has expanded and deepened mano dura laws, following straight on from Uribe's punitive penal policies (Law 1453 of 2011, Law 1801 of 2016).

71 Kyra Gurney, ‘Behind Colombia's Dramatic Fall in Kidnappings’, Insight Crime. Investigation and Analysis of Organized Crime, 13 Jan. 2015, available at http://www.insightcrime.org/news-analysis/behind-colombia-dramatic-fall-in-kidnappings (last access 21 May 2018).

72 See Ariza, Libardo José, ‘“Dados sin números”. Un acercamiento al orden social en la Cárcel La Modelo’, Revista de Derecho Público, 26 (2011), pp. 5–21Google Scholar; Sarmiento, Camilo Bernal and Hurtado, Michael Reed, ‘De La Modelo a Coleman (o de cómo las cárceles en Colombia se volvieron de verdad)’, in Rojas, Cielo Mariño (ed.), Análisis de las políticas públicas en torno a la prisión (Bogotá: Universidad Externado, 2007), pp. 17–66Google Scholar; Leal, William Carrillo, ‘From my Prison Cell. Time and Space in Prison in Colombia, an Ethnographic Approach’, Latin American Perspectives, 28: 1 (2001), pp. 149–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

73 See for instance: FCSPP, Seguridad sin derechos. Informe de la situación carcelaria en Colombia (2007–2009) (Bogotá: FCSPP, 2010)Google Scholar

74 Aguirre, Carlos, The Criminals of Lima and their Worlds. The Prison Experience, 1850–1935 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Salvatore, Ricardo D. and Aguirre, Carlos, The Birth of the Penitentiary in Latin America: Essays on Criminology, Prison Reform, and Social Control, 1830–1940 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1996)Google Scholar. On the contrasting nature of the penal traditions between the US and Latin America, comparing contemporary models, see also Birkbeck, Christopher, ‘Imprisonment and Internment: Comparing Penal Institutions North and South’, Punishment and Society, 13: 3 (2011), pp. 307–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

76 See for instance: Darke, Sacha and Karam, Maria Lucia, ‘Latin American Prisons’, in Jewkes, Yvonne et al. (eds.) Handbook on Prisons (2nd edn) (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2016), pp. 460–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Garces, Chris, Martin, Thomas and Darke, Sacha, ‘Informal Prison Dynamics in Africa and Latin America’, Criminal Justice Matters, 91: 1 (2013), pp. 26–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Macaulay, Fiona ‘The Policy Challenges of Informal Prisoner Governance’, Prison Service Journal, 229 (2017), pp. 51–6Google Scholar.

77 Official 1: Former prison warder; Official 2: prison architect and former head of the INPEC Civil Engineering Office, interviewed in Bogotá, 20 May 2011.

78 Akrich, ‘The De-scription of Technical Objects’.

79 Instituto Nacional Penitenciario y Carcelario (INPEC), Nuevas técnicas penitenciarias. Manual del participante (Funza: Escuela Penitenciaria Nacional, 2002)Google Scholar.

80 Inmate interviewed at La Modelo prison in Barranquilla, 16 July 2010.

81 Prison architect and former head of the INPEC Civil Engineering Office, interviewed in Bogotá), 20 May 2011.

82 Former inmate of Valledupar high-security prison, interviewed at El Barne prison in Boyaca, 26 Nov. 2010.

83 Faulconbridge, ‘Mobile “Green” Design Knowledge’, p. 340.

84 Julie de Dardel, ‘Resisting “Bare Life”: Prisoners’ Agency in the New Prison Culture Era in Colombia’, in Moran et al. (eds.), Carceral Spaces, p. 194.

85 Ibid., pp. 188–95.

86 INPEC, Respuesta a la solicitud de información, Correspondence with the lower house of the Congress, the House of Representatives (Deputy Iván Cepeda), 25 Feb. 2013.

87 Söderström and Geertman, ‘Loose Threads’.

88 Latour, Bruno, ‘Technology Is Society Made Durable’, in Law, John (ed.), A Sociology of Monsters. Essays on Power, Technology and Domination (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 103–31Google Scholar.

89 Knox, Paul L. and Taylor, Peter J., ‘Toward a Geography of the Globalization of Architecture Office Networks’, Journal of Architectural Education, 58: 3 (2005), pp. 23–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Faulconbridge, ‘Global Architects’; Guggenheim and Söderström (eds.), Re-shaping Cities.

90 Söderström, Cities in Relations.

91 Robinson, Jennifer, ‘Thinking Cities through Elsewhere. Comparative Tactics for a More Global Urban Studies’, Progress in Human Geography, 40: 1 (2016), pp. 3–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McFarlane, Colin, ‘The Comparative City: Knowledge, Learning, Urbanism’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 34: 4 (2010), pp. 725–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ward, Kevin, ‘Towards a Relational Comparative Approach to the Study of Cities’, Progress in Human Geography 34: 4 (2010), pp. 471–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.