¹ An exception to this statement is Nunn's, Frederick M. helpful article ‘The Latin American Military Establishment: Some Thoughts on the Origins of its Socio-Political Role and an Illustrative Bibliographical Essay,’ The Americas, XXVIII, 2 (10, 1970), 135–51.Google Scholar

² An important guide to these works is Lang, Kurt, Military Institutions and the Sociology of War, A Review of the Literature with Annotated Bibliography (Beverly Hills, California, 1972).Google Scholar

³ Huntington, Samuel P., The Soldier and the State: The Theory of Civil-Military Relations (New York, 1957);Google ScholarJanowitz, Morris, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (Glencoe, Illinois, 1960);Google ScholarFiner, Samuel E., The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics (New York, 1962).Google Scholar

⁴ Lieuwen, Edwin, Arms and Politics in Latin America (New York, 1960);Google ScholarJohnson, John J., The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, California, 1964);Google ScholarMcAlister, Lyle N., “Recent Research and Writings on the Role of the Military in Latin America,’ Latin American Research Review, II, 1 (Fall, 1966), 5–36;Google ScholarPotash, Robert A., The Army in Politics in Argentina: Yrigoyen to Perón (Stanford, 1968).Google Scholar

⁵ For an evaluation of these recent studies, see Rankin, Richard C., ‘The Expanding Institutional Concerns of the Latin American Military Establishments: A Review Article,’ Latin American Research Review, IX, 1 (Spring, 1974), 81–108.Google Scholar

⁶ Much of this material is in the form of articles in such collections as Johnson, John J. (ed.), The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962);CrossRefGoogle ScholarJanowitz, Morris (ed.), The New Military: Changing Patterns of Organization (New York, 1964);Google ScholarBienen, Henry (ed.), The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development (New York, 1968);Google ScholarDoorn, Jacques Van (ed.), Military Profession and Military Regimes: Commitments and Conflicts (The Hague, 1969);Google Scholar and a three-volume series, Van Gils, M. R. (ed.), The Perceived Role of the Military: Contributions to Military Sociology, Vol. 1, Studies Presented at the Social Science Conference on the Perceived Role of the Military, France, 1970. (Rotterdam, 1975);Google ScholarJanowitz, Morris and Van Doorn, Jacques (eds.), On Military Intervention: Contributions to Military Sociology, Vol. 2, Studies Presented at Varna International Sociological Association Conference, 1970, Part I;Google ScholarJanowitz, Morris and Van Doorn, Jacques (eds.), On Military Ideology: Contributions to Studies on Military Sociology, Vol. 3, Studies Presented at Varna International Sociological Association Conference, 1970 Part II (Rotterdam, 1971).Google Scholar

⁷ Huntington, , op. cit., pp. 19–58;Google ScholarBengt, Abrahamsson, Military Professionalization and Political Power (Beverly Hills, 1972), pp. 21–39.Google Scholar

⁸ MacKinlay, R. D., ‘Professionalization, Politicization and Civil Military Relations,’ in Van Gils, M. R. (ed.), The Perceived Role of the Military, pp. 250–1.Google Scholar

⁹ Finer, , op. cit., pp. 88–9.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Ibid., pp. 86–7, 140–8; MacKinlay, , op. cit., pp. 252–3;Google ScholarAbrahamsson, , op. Cit., pp. 153–6.Google Scholar

¹¹ Finer, , op. cit., pp. 148–51;Google ScholarMacKinlay, , Op. Cit., p. 254.Google Scholar

¹² Huntington, , op. cit., p. 95;Google ScholarMacKinlay, , Op. Cit., pp. 260–1.Google Scholar

¹³ Ibid., pp. 257–8.

¹⁴ Finer, , op. cit., pp. 25–8.Google Scholar

¹⁵ MacKinlay, , op. cit., p. 254.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Abrahamsson, , op. cit., p. 13.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., p. 17.

¹⁹ Increasing governmental concern over internal security has thrust the military into domestic peace-keeping roles with obvious political implications. Alfred Stepan has treated this theme with respect to both the United States and Brazil. See Russet, Bruce and Stepan, Alfred (eds.), Military Force and American Society (New York, 1973),Google Scholar and Stepan, Alfred, ‘The New Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion’, in Authoritarian Brazil: Origins, Policies, and Future (ed. Stepan, Alfred, New Haven, 1973), pp. 47–65.Google Scholar

²⁰ de Paula Cidade, Francisco, Sintese de trùs sùculos de literatura militar brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1959), pp. 89–102;Google ScholarWerneck Sodrù, Nelson, História militar do Brasil (2nd ed., Rio de Janeiro, 1968), pp. 50–6;Google ScholarMaxwell, Kenneth R., Conflicts and Conspiracies: Brazil and Portugal, 1750–1808 (Cambridge, 1973), pp. 42–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ Vieira da Cunha, Rui, Estudo da nobreza brasileira, I, cadetes (Rio de Janeiro, 1966), pp. 23–5.Google Scholar

²² The deteriorating position of the army has been well documented in McBeth, Michael, ‘The Politicians and the Generals: The Decline of the Brazilian Army During the First Empire, 1822–1831’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington, 1972), pp. 101–83.Google Scholar

²³ For a traditional approach to the period 1831–70, see Batista Magalhāes, Joāo, A evolução militar do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1958), pp. 293–312.Google ScholarSodrù, Cf., op. cit., pp.127–43.Google Scholar New information pertaining to the social origins of the officer corps and pre-Paraguayan War reforms can be found in John Schulz, ‘O exùcito e o impùrio’, in Buarque de Holanda, Sergio (ed.), História geral da civilizaçāo brasileira, Brasil monárquico: de-clínio e queda do impùrio, 11, 4 (São Paulo, 1971), 235–49.Google Scholar

²⁴ Estimates vary for the number of Brazilians who served in Paraguay. The figures used here are those of Augusto Tasso Fragoso who gives a gross figure of 139,000, including 9,000 for the navy and 130,000 for the army. He only specifically accounts for 111,650. See Fragoso, Tasso, Hisiória da guerra entre a tríplice aliança e o Paraguai (5 vols., 2nd ed., Rio de Janeiro, 1960), V, 260–5.Google Scholar

²⁵ Gaylord Warren, Harris, Paraguay; An Informal History (Norman, Oklahoma, 1949), p. 220.Google Scholar

²⁶ Prado Junior, Caio, Hisiória económica do Brasil (11^a ed., São Paulo, 1969), pp. 191–2.Google Scholar

²⁷ Rangel, Alberto, Gastão d'Orleans: O ultimo Conde d'Eu (Sāo Paulo, 1953), pp. 120–2.Google Scholar

²⁸ Camillo de Oliveira Torres, Joāo, O presidencialismo no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1962), pp. 129–36.Google Scholar

²⁹ Luis Osório, Fernando, História do General Osório (2 vols., Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, 1915), II, 399–400.Google Scholar

³⁰ Fragoso, Tasso, História da guerra, 5. 229–33;Google ScholarRangel, , O Ultimo Conde d'Eu, p. 285.Google Scholar

³¹ The attitude of the Minister of War and his supporters is manifested in senate debates over the sponsoring of a Te Deum and victory celebration in Rio. See Brasil, Assemblea Geral Legislativa (hereinafter cited as BAGL), Anais do Senado, 1870, 1, 208–9, 214–5, and 248–51 (Sessions of 05 25, 06 20, 22, and 27).Google Scholar

³² Fragoso, Tasso, História da guerra, 5, 225–7.Google Scholar

³³ BAGL, Anais do Senado, 1870, III, 52–5 (Session of 8 08); 86–92 (Session of 16 08).Google Scholar

³⁴ Arquivo do Museu Imperial de Petrópolis, Portfolio CLX-7440.

³⁵ Joaquim do Nascisnento e Silva, Manoel (ed.), Consultas do conselho de estado sobre negócios relativos ao Ministùrio da Guerra, 1887–1889 (Rio de Janeiro, 1890), pp. 49–51.Google Scholar

³⁶ Brasil. Ministùrio da Guerra (hereinafter cited as BMG), Relatório, 1872, Annexo A, pp. 1–51.Google Scholar

³⁷ Ibid., p. 47.

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁹ Brasil. Ministùrio da Gucrra, Arquivo Militar, Fù de Oficio (Service Record) of Lieutenant-Colonel Antônio de Sena Madureira. This officer was the scion of a well-established Bahian family who graduated from the Military Academy with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physical sciences in 1860. A member of the first class staff corps, Sena Madureira requested a battlefield assignment during the Paraguayan War and served with distinction on several staffs and engineering commissions. He received a reprimand in 1869 for ‘disobeying the order of a superior officer’ due to a personality conflict. His career did not seem to have suffered because of this, although the incident indicated his combative, non-conforming temperament.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ For detailed descriptions of military displays probably viewed by the Brazilian officers, see Thurston, Robert H., Reports of the Commissioners of the United States to the International Exposition held at Vienna, 1873 (4 vols.; Washington, D.C., 1876), 1, 105–6, 190–I; III, 436–9; IV, 76–82.Google Scholar

⁴¹ London, 1874.

⁴² Ibid., p. 15.

⁴³ Ibid., p. 223.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Ibid., pp. 236–43.

⁴⁶ Coleçāo das leis do impùrio do Brasil (hereinafter cited as CLIB), 1874, Decree 5,529 of 17 Jan. 1874. For the historical context of this change, in terms of Brazilian military education, see Peregrino, Umberto, História e projcçāo das instituiçōes culturais do exército (Rio de Janeiro, 1967), pp. II–13, 47–52.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ BAGL, Anais do Senado, 1884, 1, 23–4 (Session of 7 05).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ CLIB, 1874, Decree 2,556 of 27 09 1874.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ CLIB, 1875, Decree 5,881 of 27 02 1875.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Madureira, Sena, Estudo da organisaçāo militar dos estados europeos (London, 1876), p. 81.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Ibid.

⁵² Only briefly mentioned here, this condition is documented in my article ‘Institutional Sources of Officer Discontent in the Brazilian Army, 1870–1889’, Hisçanic American Historical Review, 55:1 (02 1975), pp. 44–65.Google Scholar

⁵³ CLIB, 1873, Decree 2,105 of 8 02 1873; CLIB, 1887, Decree 9,697 of 15 01 1887. The pay rise became effective during, and perhaps as a result of, the ‘quesāo militar’.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ ‘Dùcima oitava palestra (19 de Juiho de 1885)’ Revista do Exùrcito Brasleiro (hereinafter cited as REB), IV (1885), 347–8.

⁵⁵ O Soldado, an official semi-weekly newspaper, appeared for a period of approximately three months, from 18 March 1881 to 28 June 1881. Publication resumed as Tribuna Militar from 3 July 1881 to 16 March 1882, under the editorship of Captain Joaquim Silvùrio de Azevedo Pimentel (‘J. Pimentel’) and Major Antônio da Rocha Bezerra Cavalcanti (‘Major Bezerra’).

⁵⁶ ‘A representaçāo das classes,’ O Soldado, No. 3 (3 03 1881), p. I.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ ‘A representaçāo das classes,’ O Soldado, No. 24 (3 06 1881), p. I.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ ‘O pleito eleitoral,’ Tribuna Militar, No. 32 (20 10 1881), p. I.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ ‘Publicações a pedido,’ Gazeta dc Notícias, No. 227 (18 08 1881), pp. 2–3. See also the editorial ‘Construcçāo naval’, Tribuna Militar, No. 35 (30 10 1881), p. 2, in which the editors endorse Silveira da Mota's nationalistic views.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ ‘Publicaçōes a pedido,’ Gazeta de Notícias, No. 300 (30 10 1881), p. 2.Google Scholar

⁶¹ ‘Eleições-município neutro,’ Gazeta de Notícias, No. 301 (I 11 1881), p. 1.Google Scholar

⁶² ‘O nosso exùrcito,’ Tribuna Militar, No. 24 (22 09 1881), pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

⁶³ Revista do Exùrcito Brasileiro, 7 vols., 1882 –1888; this journal was published for much of its life at the Tipografia da Tribuna Militar, Rua da Carioca, No. 31, Rio de Janeiro. The founding editors were Alfredo Ernesto Jacques Ourique and Antônio Vicente Ribeiro Guimarāes. Both were officers in the engineering corps and later prominent members of the Military Club in Rio de Janeiro.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Graham, Richard, Britain and the Onset of Modernization of Brazil, 1850–1964 (Cambridge, 1968), pp. 160–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁵ Schulz, John, ‘O exùrcito e o impùrio’, pp. 240–1.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ For a detailed discussion of previous civil-military incidents, as well as the ‘military question’ of 1886–7, see Magaihāes, Raimundo, Deodoro; a espada contra o impùrio (2 vols., Sāo Paulo, 1957), 1, 173–320,Google Scholar A summary of these events in English is provided by Willis Simmons, Charles, Marshal Deodoro and the Fall of Dam Pedro II (Durham, N.C., 1966).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ ‘Dùcima sexta palestra (28 de junho de 1885)’ REB, IV (1885), 358–23.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ This event, known as the ‘military question’, has been extensively discussed in Brazilian historiography on the fall of the Second Empire. Cf. Magalhācs, op. cit., 1, 206–86;Google ScholarLyra, Heitor, Queda do impùrio (2 vols., Sāo Paulo, 1964), 1, 42–144Google Scholar and Monteiro, Tobias, Pesquisas e depoimentos para a história, pp. III–61.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ e Silva, Nascimento, Consultas do consclho, pp. 45–6.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Pelotas compared the crisis to that which precipitated the abdication of Dom Pedro I in April 1831. See Magalhães, , op. cit., l, 266.Google Scholar

⁷¹ CLIB, 1888, Decree 10,015 of 18 08 1888.Google Scholar

⁷² Magalhāes, , op. Cit., II, 7–9.Google Scholar

⁷³ For the most complete account of the coup d'ùtat see Lyra, , op. cit., II, 145 ff.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Nunn, Frederick M., ‘Emil Körner and the Prussianization of the Chilean Army: Origins, Process, and Consequences, 1885–1920,’ Hispanic American Historical Review, L, 2 (05 1970), 300–22;CrossRefGoogle ScholarNorth, Liisa, Civil-Military Relations in Argentina, Chile, and Peru (Berkeley, 1966), pp. II–20.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Torres, Oliveira, A democracia coroada (Petrópolis, Brazil, 1964), pp. 491–2.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ For a selective guide to military writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, see Ruas Santos, Francisco, Coleçāo bibliográfica militar (Rio de Janeiro, 1960).Google Scholar However, it omits substantive reference to the important review A defeza nacional. For an interpretation of Brazilian military institutional development based partially on writings in A defeza nacianal, see Nunn, , ‘Military Professionalism and Professional Militarism in Brazil, 1870–1970: Historical Perspectives and Political Implications’, Journal of Latin American Studies, IV, 1 (05 1972), 29–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷⁷ The basic monograph on the emergence of the Brazilian military as a ruling group in recent times is Alfred, Stepan, The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil (Princeton, 1971).Google Scholar