Hostname: page-component-6d856f89d9-gndc8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-16T07:50:11.891Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

A Dream Dialogue on Religious Liberty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 April 2015

Extract

Suppose for a moment that you have been wrestling with the question of religious liberty in American history and contemporary life. You begin to see that it is a multi-layered concept, not easily captured in one attempt. Suppose further, then, that you could gather together in one place some of the people who have made a significant contribution to the discussion. Who would you invite to speak? How would they respond to each other? In light of what they said, how willing would you be to re-examine your own assumptions, your most cherished conclusions?

In a dream, anything can happen. The most unlikely people may find themselves in agreement, while longtime friends may find themselves at odds with one another. Our interlocutors might be acquainted with unfolding events beyond the boundaries of their historical careers, or they might confess that their knowledge is still limited to their own historical horizon …

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Center for the Study of Law and Religion at Emory University 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. All Biblical citations are taken from the King James Version.

2. Williams, Roger, The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution, for the Cause of Conscience, Discussed in a Conference Between Truth and Peace (Groves, Richard ed., Mercer U. Press 2001)Google Scholar. A good introduction to Williams' thought, with excellent bibliography, is Gaustad, Edwin, Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America (Eerdmans 1991)Google Scholar. See also Hall, Timothy, Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty (U. Ill. Press 1998)Google Scholar.

3. For President Bush's own account of these projects, see Bush, George W., Speech, Remarks at the White House Faith-based and Community Initiatives Leadership Conference, (D.C., 03 1, 2005)Google Scholar, in 41 Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 332 (forthcoming 2007) (available at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/wcomp/v41no09.html). For a more critical view see Davis, Derek, President Bush's Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives: Boon or Boondoggle?, 43 J. Church & St. 411 (Summer 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. Acts 17:6.

5. Hilberg, Raul, The Destruction of the European Jews (rev. ed., Holmes & Meier 1985)Google Scholar. See also Dalin, David G., How High the Wall? American Jews and the Church-State Debate, 49 Conservative Judaism 63 (1997)Google Scholar. Blumoff, Theodore Y., The Holocaust and Public Discourse, 11 J.L. & Relig. 591 (1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6. Neuhaus, Richard John, The Naked Public Square: Religion and Democracy in America (Eerdmans 1984)Google Scholar.

7. Lemon v. Kurtzman 403 U.S. 602, 612-613 (1971).

8. See Comm. For Pub. Educ. & Religious Liberty v. Regan, 444 U.S. 646, 671 (1980) (Stevens, J. dissenting) (describing the majority's interpretation of Lemon as a “Sisyphean task.”).

9. Neuhaus, supra n. 6. Neuhaus has a continuing column in the journal First Things which tracks many of these themes as they emerge in new ways in American society.

10. Winthrop, John, A Model of Christian Charity, 1 The Annals of America 1493-1754, at 109115 (Adler, Mortimer ed., Ency. Britannica 1968)Google Scholar.

11. Bellah, Robert, Flaws in the Protestant Code: Some Religious Sources of America's Troubles, 7 Ethical Persp. 288 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. But see Davis, James Calvin, A Return to Civility: Roger Williams and Public Discourse in America, 43 J. Church & St. 689, 702703 (2001)Google Scholar. See generally Bremer, Frances, John Winthrop: America's Forgotten Founding Father (Oxford U. Press 2003)Google Scholar.

12. Locke's, JohnLetter Concerning Toleration was first published in 1689Google Scholar. For useful critical essays, see John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration, In Focus (Morton, John & Mendus, Susan eds., Routledge 1991)Google Scholar. Compare Mouw, Richard, John Locke's Christian Individualism, 8 Faith & Phil. 448 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Little, David, Conscience, Theology, and the First Amendment, 72 Soundings 357 (1989)Google Scholar; with Perry, John, Locke's Accidental Church: The Letter Concerning Toleration and the Church's Witness to the State, 47 J. Church & St. 269 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13. Howard, Guy, The Political Theory of the Huguenots of the Dispersion, With Special Reference to the Thought and Influence of Pierre Jurieu (Colum. U. Press 1947)Google Scholar. Turchetti, Mario, Religious Concord and Political Tolerance in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century France, 22 Sixteenth Cen. J. 1525 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14. An excellent historical introduction to this period in France is Holt, Mack, The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629 (Cambridge U. Press 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the view shared by many historians today, that the Edict is but one in a series of attempts to reach a settlement both Protestant and Catholic could live with, and so “console a troubled France,” see Bost, Hubert, L'Edit de Nantes, Lectures d'hier et d'aujourd'hui, 73, no. 3Theologiques et Religieuses 371390 (1998)Google Scholar. Other important works include Perry, Elisabeth Israels, From Theology to History: French Religious Controversy and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (Martinus Nijhoff 1973)Google Scholar; Johnston, Charles, Elie Benoist, Historian of the Edict of Nantes, 55 Church History 468 (1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hudson, Elizabeth K., The Protestant Struggle for Survival in Early Bourbon France: The Case of the Huguenot Schools, 76 Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte 271 (1985)Google Scholar; Margolf, Diane, Adjudicating Memory: Law and Religious Difference in Early Seventeenth-Century France, 27 Sixteenth Cent. J. 399 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15. Temple, William, Christianity and Social Order 47 (SCM Press 1942)Google Scholar; Torke, James, The English Religious Establishment, 12 J.L. & Relig. 399 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16. Thomas Helwys (1560-1616), an early Baptist, was a Separatist who emigrated from England to Amsterdam in 1608. Helwys, Thomas, A Short Declaration of The Mystery of Iniquity (Groves, Richard ed., Mercer U. Press 1998)Google Scholar (defending the separation of church and state). Estep, William R. Jr., Thomas Helwys: Bold Architect of Baptist Policy on Church-State Relations, 20, no. 3Baptist History & Heritage 24 (07 1985)Google Scholar. The “foolish debate” about the decline of established Christianity in England has in fact been a spirited and valuable discussion among sociologists of religion. See Davie, Grace, Religion in England since 1945: Believing Without Belonging (Blackwell 1994)Google Scholar.

17. The Schleitheim Confession, 1527, in 2 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition 696703 (Pelikan, Jaroslav & Hotchkiss, Valerie eds., Yale U. Press 2003)Google Scholar.

18. Sattler was arrested and executed for his “radical” views in 1527. See generally The Legacy of Michael Sattler (Yoder, John Howard ed. & trans., Herald Press 1973)Google Scholar; Winter, Sean, Michael Sattler and the Schleitheim Articles: A Study in the Background to the First Anabaptist Confession of Faith, 34 Baptist Q. 52 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Biesecker-Mast, Gerald, Anabaptist Separation and Arguments against the Sword in the Schleitheim Brotherly Union, 74 Mennonite Q. Rev. 381 (2000)Google Scholar.

19. Referred to as Landholder VII, Oliver Ellsworth wrote against religious tests in 1787. Ellsworth, Oliver, Art. 6, Cl. 3, Doc. 14, in The Founders' Constitution Vol. 4, 639 (Kurkland, Philip B. & Lerner, Ralph eds., U. Chi. Press 1987)Google Scholar. See generally Casto, William, Oliver Ellsworth's Calvinism: A Biographical Essay on Religion and Political Psychology in the Early Republic, 36 J. Church & St. 507 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20. The Thirty-Nine Articles, 1571, in supra, n. 17, at 526-540.

21. Knox, John, The Buke of Discipline, in 2 The Works of John Knox 183260 (Laing, David ed., AMS Press Inc. 1966)Google Scholar.

22. The Westminster Confession of Faith, 1647, in supra n. 17, at 601-649.

23. Knox, John, The Appellation to the Nobility and Estates of Scotland, 1558, in 4 The Works of John Knox 467520 (Laing, David ed., AMS Press Inc. 1966)Google Scholar.

24. Kyle, Richard, John Knox: A Man of the Old Testament, 54 Westminster Theological J. 65 (1992)Google Scholar (describing Knox's approach to the Hebrew scriptures); see also Greaves, Richard L., John Knox and the Covenant Tradition, 24 J. Ecclesiastical History 23 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See generally Reid, W. Stanford, John Knox's Theology of Political Government, 19 Sixteenth Cent. J. 529 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kyle, Richard, The Christian Commonwealth: John Knox's Vision for Scotland, 16 J. Religious History 247 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25. Fox, Margaret Fell, Womens Speaking Justified (William Andrews Clark Memi. Lib., U. Cal. 1979) (originally published 1667)Google Scholar.

26. John Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against The Monstrous Regiment of Women, in supra n. 23, at 349-422.

27. Woolman, John, Considerations on Slavery, in The Journal of John Woolman 2542 (Whitney, Janet ed., Henry Regnery 1950)Google Scholar.

28. See Penn, William, No Cross, No Crown: A Discourse Showing the Nature and Discipline of the Holy Cross of Christ, in The Papers of William Penn 295296 (Dunn, Richard S., Dunn, Mary Mapleset al. eds., U. Penn. Press 1981)Google Scholar; see also Kunze, Bonnelyn Young, Religious Authority and Social Status in Seventeenth-Century England: The Friendship of Margaret Fell, George Fox, and William Penn, 57 Church History 170 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Emmerich, Charles J. & Adams, Arlin, William Penn and the American Heritage of Religious Liberty, 8 J.L. & Relig. 57 (1990)Google Scholar; Barbour, Hugh, William Penn, Model of Protestant Liberalism, 48 Church History 156 (1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29. Singer, Isaac Bashevis, Gimpel the Fool, in The Collected Short Stories of Isaac Bashevis Singer 3 (Bellow, Saul trans., Farrar, Straus & Giroux 1982)Google Scholar (suggesting that God might play jokes of this sort on us).

30. Dignitatis Humanae, in The Gospel of Peace and Justice: Catholic Social Teaching since Pope John ¶ 2, 339 (Gremillion, Joseph ed., Orbis 1976Google Scholar) (footnote omitted). Paragraph 2 states:

This Vatican Synod declares that the human person has a right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are to be immune from coercion on the part of individuals or of social groups and of any human power, in such wise that in matters religious no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs. Nor is anyone to be restrained from acting accordance with his own beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in association with others, within due limits.

The Synod further declares that the right to religious freedom has its foundation in the very dignity of the human person, as this dignity is known through the revealed Word of God and by reason itself. This right of the human person to religious freedom is to be recognized in the constitutional law whereby society is governed. Thus it is to become a civil right.

31. Pacem in Terris, in id. at ¶ 14, 204. “Every human has the right to honor God according to the dictates of an upright conscience, and the right to profess his religion privately and publicly.”

32. For a summary of these measures, see Littell, Franklin, The Significance of the Declaration on Religion Liberty, 5, no. 2J. Ecumenical Stud. 326 (Spring 1968)Google Scholar.

33. Luke 22:19.

34. Mark 10:14.

35. Paul, Pope John II, Evangelium Vitae, ch. III, ¶ 72 (1995)Google Scholar, in The Encyclicals of John Paul II at 738 (Miller, J. Michael ed., Our Sunday Visitor 2001)Google Scholar; see Aquinas, Thomas, Summa Theologiae I–II, q. 93, a. 3, ad 2Google Scholar.

36. Paul, Pope John II, Evangelium Vitae, ch. IV, ¶ 78 (1995)Google Scholar, in id. at 742-761. (“For a New Culture of Human Life” is the name of this chapter in EV, “We are a people of life” appears on page 742.) See also the discussions of this encyclical in Choosing Life: A Dialogue on Evangelium Vitae (Wildes, Kevin & Mitchell, Alan eds., Geo. U. Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Budziszewski, J., What We Can't Not Know, 22 Human Life Rev. 85 (1996)Google Scholar.

37. Justice John Paul Stevens made this point in a rather emphatic way in a speech to the American Bar Association in 1985:

The term “founding generation” [as used by Attorney General Meese] describes a rather broad and diverse class. It includes apostles of intolerance as well as tolerance, advocates of different points of view in religion as well as politics, and great minds in Virginia and Pennsylvania as well as Massachusetts. I am not at all sure that men like James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin or the pamphleteer, Thomas Paine, would have regarded strict neutrality on the part of the Government between religion and irreligion as “bizarre.”

Stevens, John Paul, The Great Debate: Interpreting Our Written Constitution 27 (Federalist Socy. for L. & Public Policy Stud. 1986)Google Scholar.

38. See Smylie, James, Madison and Witherspoon: Theological Roots of American Political Thought, 73 Am. Presbyterians 153 (1995)Google Scholar (offering an interpretation of Madison's thinking about the necessity of factions, especially Madison's hope that competing factions would prevent power from being overly concentrated in one group or another). Alexis de Tocqueville's somewhat more optimistic observations about associations are also relevant to this discussion. See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Bk. II, § 2, Ch. V, Of the Use Which the Americans Make of Public Associations in Civil Life. For an influential contemporary account, see Berger, Peter & Neuhaus, Richard John, To Empower People: From State to Civil Society (Am. Enter. Inst, for Pub. Policy Research 1977)Google Scholar.

39. Conway, John S., The ‘Stasi’ and the Churches: Between Coercion and Compromise in East German Protestantism, 1949-1989, 36 J. Church & St. 725 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (describing methods the East German state police used in infiltrating Christian communities for the purposes of surveillance and sowing distrust among them). See also Koenig, Richard E., The Churches and the STASI, 109 Christian Cent. 396 (1992)Google Scholar.

40. Leo Pfeffer looks at “friendly competition” in Pfeffer, Leo, Creeds in Competition (Greenwood Press 1978)Google Scholar. Robert Bellah and others remind us that “religious competition” in America can be unfriendly, however, Uncivil Religion: Interreligious Hostility in America (Bellah, Robert N. & Greenspahn, Frederick E. eds., Crossroad 1987)Google Scholar. See especially Welter, Barbara, From Maria Monk to Paul Blanshard: A Century of Protestant Anti-Catholicism, in Uncivil Religion: Interreligious Hostility in America 4371 (Bellah, Robert N. & Greenspahn, Frederick E. eds., Crossroad 1987)Google Scholar.

41. Rotherberger, Johnson, & Lyons LLP, Jefferson to the Danbury Baptists, 1802 (available at http://www.churchstatelaw.com/historicalmaterials/8_8_5.asp (accessed Aug. 9, 2005)).

42. Treaty with the Kaskaskia, Aug. 13, 1803, 7 Stat. 78, in Indian Treaties, 1778-1883, at 6768 (Kappler, Charles J. ed., Interland Publg. Inc. 1972)Google Scholar. See also Cord, Robert L., Separation of Church and State: Historical Fact and Current Fiction 261263 (Lambeth Press 1982)Google Scholar.

43. “An Act granting further time for locating military land warrants, and for other purposes” The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America Edited by Peters, Richard, Esq. Vol. II, “Acts of the Eighth Congress” Session I, Chapter 26, p. 271272 (Little, Charles C. & Brown, James eds. 1845)Google Scholar. The extensions are also collected and discussed in a polemical way by Robert Cord, supra n. 42, at 44-45, 263-270.

44. Everson v. Bd. of Educ. of Ewing Township, 330 U.S. 1, 16 (1947). See Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 92, 106-107 (1985) (Rehnquist, C.J. dissenting) (critiquing the “wall” metaphor). But see Pfeffer, Leo, The Establishment Clause: An Absolutist's Defense, 4 Notre Dame J.L. Ethics & Pub. Policy 699 (1990)Google Scholar (critiquing Rehnquist's argument). See generally Davis, Derek, Original Intent: Chief Justice Rehnquist and the Course of American Church/State Relations 9497 (Prometheus Books 1991)Google Scholar (providing a brief discussion of Rehnquist's criticism of the “wall” metaphor).

45. Jefferson, Thomas, Elementary School Act, 1817, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson vol. 17, 425 (meml. ed., Lipscomb & Berg 1907)Google Scholar. For a sketch of Jefferson's perspective on the eve of the Revolution, shaped by the decline of the Anglican Church in Virginia, see Peterson, Merrill D., Jefferson, Madison, and Church-State Separation, in Conceived in Conscience 34, 3839 (Rutyna, Richard & Kuehl, John W. eds., Donning 1983)Google Scholar.

46. Jefferson, Thomas, Notes on Virginia, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson vol. 8, 388 (memi, ed., Lipscomb & Berg 1907)Google Scholar.

47. Cf. Religion and the State: Essays in Honor of Leo Pfeffer (Wood, James ed., Baylor U. Press 1985)Google Scholar; e.g., Leo Pfeffer, Autobiographical Sketch, in Religion and the State: Essays in Honor of Leo Pfeffer, supra n. 33, at 487. See also Holcomb, J. David, The Nexus of Freedom of Religion and Separation of Church and State in the Thought of Leo Pfeffer (Ph.D. thesis, Baylor U., Waco, TX, 1997)Google Scholar (reprod. available through U. Mich., Ann Arbor, at http://wwwlib.umi.com/dxweb/search); Preville, Joseph R., Leo Pfeffer and the American Church-State Debate: A Confrontation with Catholicism, 33 J. Church & St. 37 (1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48. Neuhaus, Richard John, Contending for the Future: Overcoming the Pfefferian Inversion, 8 J.L. & Relig. 115129 (1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

49. McConnell, Michael, Accommodation of Religion, 1985 S. Ct. Rev. 1Google Scholar; McConnell, Michael, Why “Separation” Is Not the Key to Church-State Relation 106–2 Christian Cent. 43 (1989)Google Scholar. Neuhaus, Richard John, The Naked Public Square 130 (W..B. Eerdmans Publg. Co. 1984)Google Scholar.

50. Rosenberger v. U. Va., 515 U.S. 819, 822 (1995).

51. 533 U.S. 98, 120 (2001).

52. Sullivan, Winnifred Fallers, The Difference Religion Makes: Reflections on Rosenberger, 113 Christian Cent. 292 (1996)Google Scholar.

53. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 587 (1992); Sante Fe v. Doe 530 U.S. 290, 303 (2000).

54. 536 U.S. 639, 662-663 (2002).

55. Laycock, Douglas, Comment: Theology Scholarships, The Pledge of Allegiance, and Religious Liberty: Avoiding the Extremes But Missing the Liberty, 118 Harv. L. Rev. 156 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56. Supra n. 35.

57. Bollag, Burton, Choosing Their Flock, 51 Chron. Higher Educ. A33, 3334 (01 28, 2005)Google Scholar.

58. 883 F2d 662 (1989).

59. Tushnet, Mark, Questioning the Value of Accommodating Religion, in Law and Religion: A Critical Anthology 245, 250254 (Feldman, Stephen M. ed., N.Y.U. Press 2000)Google Scholar; Cunningham, Hilary, Sanctuary and Sovereignty: Church and State Along the U.S.-Mexico Border, 40 J. Church & St. 371 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See generally Elliott, John, The Church as a Counterculture: A Home for the Homeless and a Sanctuary for Refugees, 25 Currents in Theology & Mission 176 (1998)Google Scholar (making an explicitly Biblical justification for the Sanctuary Movement); Wilbanks, Dana W., The Sanctuary Movement and U.S. Refugee Policy: A Paradigm for Christian Public Ethics, 6, no. 1Theology & Pub. Policy 4 (Summer 1994)Google Scholar.

60. Perry, Michael J., The Foundations of Law: The Morality of Human Rights: A Nonreligious Ground?, 54 Emory L.J. 97, 100 (2005)Google Scholar. See also Farer, Tom J. & Gaer, Felice, The UN and Human Rights: At the End of the Beginning, in United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations 240 (Roberts, Adam & Kingsbury, Benedict eds., 2d ed. 1993)Google Scholar.

61. Perry, Michael, Is the Idea of Human Rights Ineliminably Religious?, in The Idea of Human Rights: Four Inquiries 1141 (Oxford U. Press 2000)Google Scholar.

62. Harrelson, Walter, The Ten Commandments and Human Rights 173193 (Fortress 1980)Google Scholar.

63. Stackhouse, Max L., Creeds, Society, and Human Rights 2650 (Eerdmans 1984)Google Scholar.

64. “[T]here is nothing deep down inside us except what we have put there ourselves.” Rorty, Richard, Consequences of Pragmatism xliixliii (U. Minn. Press 1982)Google Scholar.

65. For Rawls's view concerning the exclusion of religious views from public discourse, see Rawls, John, Justice As Fairness: Political not Metaphysical, in Collected Papers 388414 (Freeman, Samuel ed., Harv. U. Press 1999)Google Scholar.

66. Some readers … will take particular exception to the term “sacred” because it will suggest to them that the conviction I have in mind is necessarily a theistic one. I shall try to explain why it is not, and how it may be, and commonly is, interpreted in a secular as well as in a conventionally religious way.

Dworkin, Ronald, Life's Dominion: An Argument About Abortion, Euthanasia, and Individual Freedom 25 (Knopf 1993)Google Scholar.

67. The phrase “a centerless web of beliefs” is from Visker, Rudi, The Core of My Opposition to Levinas: A Clarification for Richard Rorty, 4 Ethical Perspectives 154, PIN (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (responding to a talk given by Rorty in Rorty, Richard, Justice as a Larger Loyalty, 4 Ethical Perspectives 139 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68. See Guroian, Vigen, Human Rights and Christian Ethics: An Orthodox Critique, 17 Annual Socy. Christian Ethics 301 (1997)Google Scholar. Guroian gratefully acknowledges a debt to Alexander Solzhenitsyn's account of repentance in Solzheitsyn, Alexander, Repentance and Self-Limitation in the Life of Nations, in From Under the Rubble 105143 (Brock, A.M., et al. trans., Collins & Harvill Press 1975)Google Scholar. For an earlier assessment of human rights from an Orthodox perspective, and one that is somewhat more hopeful than Guroian's view, see Harakas, Stanley S., Human Rights: An Eastern Orthodox Perspective, 19 J. Ecumenical Stud. 13 (1982)Google Scholar.

69. Villa-Vicencio, Charles, Christianity and Human Rights, 14 J.L. & Relig. 579, 579, 591-593, 598601 (2000)Google Scholar. Baum, Gregory, Religion and Alienation: A Theological Reading of Sociology (Paulist Press 1975)Google Scholar.