^{Page 257 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail (Lusaka), 15 02 1985,Google Scholar and Times of Zambia (Lusaka), 14 05 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 257 note 2} Times of Zambia, 12 January 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 257 note 3} Central Statistical Office, Monthly Digest of Statistics (Lusaka), XXI, 4–5, 04–05 1985, p. 6, Table 8.Google Scholar

^{Page 257 note 4} Thus the not atypical statement of the Minister of Agriculture, General Kingsley Chinkuli: ‘It seems, however, that no matter how well we plan our food production strategies, the vagaries of weather have tended to work against us.’ Zambia Daily Mail, 11 April 1985.

^{Page 258 note 1} Monthly Digest of Statistics, op. cit.Google Scholar

^{Page 258 note 2} Ministry of Agriculture, Nation-wide Study of Zambia's Storage Requirements for both Produce and Inputs, March 1984. Summary and Introduction (Lusaka, 1984), Planning Division Study No. 4, hereinafter Zambia's Storage Requirements.Google Scholar

^{Page 258 note 3} Times of Zambia, 12 December 1984; and Chirwa, Phillip, ‘Crop Haulage Saga’, in Zambia Daily Mail, 12 February 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 1} Times of Zambia, 6 July 1984, and Zambia Daily Mail, 30 July 1982.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 2} The Economist (London), 11 02 1984, pp. 74–6.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 3} Zambia's Storage Requirements, p. 26. In another official estimate, the Eastern Province substantially exceeded the Central in what is termed ‘retained’ maize production.Google Scholar Ministry of Agriculture, Quarterty Agricultural Statistics Bulletin (Lusaka), 07–09 1985, p. 15, Table C1.o. Maize not marketed through the official organisations represented in good part the home consumption of the small and middle peasantry. But the large quantities of ‘retained’ maize, groundnuts, and wheat, also constituted a vote of no confidence by farmers in the state's monopolistic buying agencies.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail, 31 October 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 5} Times of Zambia, 20 November 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 259 note 6} Zambia Daily Mail, 6 December 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 260 note 1} Ibid. 14 December 1984. The general manager had received a letter from President Kaunda sending him on indefinite paid leave, with no reasons given.

^{Page 260 note 2} Government Printer, Budget Address (Lusaka), 25 01 1985, p. 8.Google Scholar

^{Page 260 note 3} The Minister's reference to co-operatives ‘as in the past’ acting ‘only as agents of Namboard’ was unhelpful, since Namboard had supposedly been in a process during the last three years of handing over part of its operations as the distributor of inputs and purchaser of produce to the provincial co-operatives. According to Zambia's Storage Requirements, p. 5, the overall marketing had been undertaken by Namboard, but after 1981 the intra-provincial responsibility was that of the co-operatives, while the inter-provincial trade remained with Namboard.

^{Page 260 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail, 6 February 1985. The five Ministries comprising the task force were Finance, Co-operatives, Agriculture, Works and Supply, and Commerce and Industry.Google Scholar

^{Page 260 note 5} Times of Zambia, 25 February 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 261 note 1} Bokosi, Clemens, ‘Co-ops Our Only Survival’, in Zambia Daily Mail, 3 January 1983.Google Scholar

^{Page 261 note 2} Ibid. 14 December 1984, and Times of Zambia, 12 December 1984.

^{Page 261 note 3} Times of Zambia, 26 November 1982. The period during which the loss was accumulated was not specified.

^{Page 261 note 4} Details of the misappropriations from all nine co-operatives were contained in the report. Zambia Daily Mail, 20 March 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 262 note 1} Ibid. 26 March 1985.

^{Page 262 note 2} Times of Zambia, 13 May 1985.

^{Page 262 note 3} Ibid. 29 May 1985.

^{Page 262 note 4} Ibid. 11 February 1985.

^{Page 262 note 5} Zambia Daily Mail and Times of Zambia, 15 February 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 262 note 6} Zambia Daily Mail, 5 February 1985. Although inappropriate in every detail as regards Zambia, it is relevant to note that the real functions of co-operatives in West Africa,Google Scholar according to Hart, Keith, The Political Economy of West African Agriculture (Cambridge, 1982), p. 90,CrossRefGoogle Scholarare as follows: ‘a source of employment for government workers, a nexus of indebtedness to rival the Lebanese storekeeper, a means of transferring part of [the farmer's] labour to the state, a monopoly distributor who sells dear and buys cheap, a political payoff to the government's supporters, and a general agent of the state in the local community of farmers.’ Zambian peasant farmers would seem to agree that co-operatives are basically ‘a general agent of the state in the local community of farmers’. The Minister of State for Agriculture, Justin Mukando, told a seminar in late 1982 that peasants tended to look at co-operative unions and the Zambia Co-operative Federation as organisations created by the Government to serve its interests. He said that since the 1950s the co-operative movement had operated as an instrument for the implementation of government policies. Zambia Daily Mail, 18 December 1982.Google Scholar

^{Page 263 note 1} Editorials of 30 January and 23 May 1985, and report in Times of Zambia, 23 May 1985. Namboard is one of the oldest state agencies in Zambia, having been established in 1969 by the merger of two previous marketing parastatals.

^{Page 263 note 2} Zambia Daily Mail, 30 January 1985.

^{Page 263 note 3} Times of Zambia, 8 February 1985.

^{Page 264 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 4 March 1985.

^{Page 264 note 2} Editorial in ibid. 29 April 1985.

^{Page 264 note 3} Times of Zambia, 29 April 1985.

^{Page 264 note 4} His predecessor, Nalumino Mundia, was to be deployed in the foreign service, said President Kaunda. Zambia Daily Mail, 25 April 1985.

^{Page 264 note 5} It was on this occasion in Kabwe that the Prime Minister predicted a harvest of ten million bags of maize. Times of Zambia, 14 May 1985.

^{Page 264 note 6} Ibid. 20 April 1985.

^{Page 265 note 1} Times of Zambia, 31 May 1985.

^{Page 265 note 2} Ibid.

^{Page 265 note 3} Editorial in ibid. 14 May 1985.

^{Page 265 note 4} Following the removal of Chabwera as general manager in December 1984, Stephen Kani had taken over in an acting capacity. However, Nyirenda was also appointed acting general manager, and Chabwera was not finally dismissed by President Kaunda for ‘alleged misconduct and negligence’ until November 1985. Zambia Daily Mail, 21 May and 12 November 1985. Thirteen senior and middle-management personnel were also dismissed from Namboard in August. Ibid. 9 August 1985.

^{Page 265 note 5} Ibid. 28 May 1985.

^{Page 266 note 1} Ibid. 4 June 1985.

^{Page 266 note 2} Times of Zambia, 4 April 1985.

^{Page 266 note 3} The provincial permanent secretary, Pencil Phiri, ibid. 22 April 1985.

^{Page 266 note 4} Ibid. 29 April 1985.

^{Page 266 note 5} Zambia Daily Mail, 4 March 1985.

^{Page 266 note 6} Reference to the Bureau's monthly journal, Productive Farmer (Lusaka), in ibid. 16 July 1985.

^{Page 266 note 7} Times of Zambia, 31 May 1985.

^{Page 267 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 12 June 1985.

^{Page 267 note 2} Ibid. 17 June 1985.

^{Page 267 note 3} Ibid. 3 June 1985.

^{Page 267 note 4} Ibid. 11 July 1985.

^{Page 267 note 5} Times of Zambia, 26 July 1985.

^{Page 267 note 6} Zambia Daily Mail, 31 July 1985.

^{Page 267 note 7} This fuel was being imported despite the belief that a better arrangement would have been to re-sell the balance in Zimbabwe and use the proceeds for the purchase in that country of spare parts for Zambian truckers. Ibid. 21 August 1985.

^{Page 267 note 8} Times of Zambia, 14 August 1985, and Zambia Daily Mail, 21 August 1985.

^{Page 268 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 29 September 1985. Kaunda referred specifically to oil supplies.

^{Page 268 note 2} Times of Zambia, 30 October 1985.

^{Page 268 note 3} Kamanga declared on 14 April in Lusaka that part of the consignment from Bangladesh had already arrived, and that Namboard and the co-operatives were all set to start hauling maize next month. Zambia Daily Mail, 10 and 15 April 1985. The estimate of 13 million bags required for all crops nationally in 1985 was Kamanga's.

^{Page 268 note 4} The chairman of the Central Provincial Co-operative, Lodge Kambelo, pointed out that the bags from Bangladesh would at best not arrive until June when the harvest was underway: ‘Someone somewhere in Zambia is not doing his work properly, because the harvesting period of all crops…is known even to blind persons.’ Zambia Daily Mail, 23 April 1985.

^{Page 269 note 1} Times of Zambia, 13 May 1985.

^{Page 269 note 2} Zambia Daily Mail, 13 May 1985.

^{Page 269 note 3} Ibid. 6 June 1985.

^{Page 269 note 4} Ibid. 27 June 1985.

^{Page 269 note 5} Ibid.

^{Page 269 note 6} Ibid. 16 July 1985.

^{Page 269 note 7} Ibid. 22 July 1985.

^{Page 269 note 8} Ibid. 5 September 1985.

^{Page 270 note 1} Ibid. 16 August 1985.

^{Page 270 note 2} Times of Zambia, 8 July 1985.

^{Page 270 note 3} Zambia Daily Mail, 11 July 1985.

^{Page 271 note 1} Ibid. 16 July 1985.

^{Page 271 note 2} Ibid. 20 July 1985.

^{Page 271 note 3} Times of Zambia, 26 July 1985.

^{Page 271 note 4} Ibid. 27 July 1985.

^{Page 271 note 5} ‘Opinion’ in ibid.

^{Page 271 note 6} Zambia Daily Mail, 28 August 1985.

^{Page 271 note 7} Ibid.

^{Page 272 note 1} Nyirenda was briefing the Lusaka provincial member of the Central Committee, Bautis Kapulu, when the latter called on him at Namboard's headquarters. Nyirenda noted that the consignment of grain bags which had been received with financial assistance from the United States and West Germany had been imported from South Africa. Ibid. 6 September 1985.

^{Page 272 note 2} Ibid. 9 September 1985. The committee under the Prime Minister may have been the so-called ‘ministerial task force’ announced in early February and apparently rather inactive or at least ineffective since then.

^{Page 272 note 3} Times of Zambia, 18 September 1985.

^{Page 272 note 4} Ibid. 8 October 1985.

^{Page 272 note 5} Zambia Daily Mail, 11 October 1985.

^{Page 272 note 6} Times of Zambia, 12 October 1985.

^{Page 273 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 1 November 1985.

^{Page 273 note 2} Ibid. 29 October 1985.

^{Page 273 note 3} Ibid. 1 November 1985. The northern provincial political secretary, Wilson Chakulya, said in Kasama on 6 November that thousands of bags of maize were still lying exposed at rural depots awaiting collection. The situation with regard to transport and sometimes ‘impassable roads’ was ‘desperate’. Farmers in the area, he said, had marketed only 542,000 bags of maize against a projected figure of 800,000, and many were still awaiting payment for their produce. Times of Zambia, 7 November 1985.

^{Page 273 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail, 28 August 1985.

^{Page 273 note 5} Figures given by a government spokesman, ibid. 13 September 1985.

^{Page 274 note 1} Times of Zambia, 15 August 1985, reporting a member of the British High Commission, Lusaka, who was highlighting the value of a British loan to Zambia for the purchase of tarpaulins. For the minimum producer prices, see Quarterly Agricultural Statistics Bulletin, July–September 1985, Table C1.o.

^{Page 274 note 2} In addition to the figures referred to above, there were those presented by the U.N.I.P. Central Committee member for the Southern Province, Mungoni Liso, for his region in 1984. Farmers produced 1.6 million bags of maize but sold only 1 million to the Provincial Co-operative, and they grew 20,400 (90 kg) bags of wheat, but sold only 1,117 to the Co-operative. Zambia Daily Mail, 28 December 1984. It should be noted that the Quarterly Agricultural Statistics Bulletin, July–September 1985, presents a different figure for marketed wheat production in the Southern Province, albeit seemingly incorrect.

^{Page 274 note 3} Zambia Daily Mail, 5 September 1985, and Quarterly Agricultural Statistics Bulletin, July–September 1985, Tables C1.o and 1.5.

^{Page 274 note 4} According to General Chinkuli as reported in the Times of Zambia, 21 May 1985, the floor-price system permitted farmers to negotiate for higher prices than the official minimum, and included significantly all controlled agricultural products except maize. The new arrangements effectively discriminated against peasant maize growers, and advantaged large and organised farmers in negotiations for higher prices.

^{Page 275 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 12 September 1985, and Quarterly Agricultural Statistics Bulletin, Table C1.5.

^{Page 275 note 2} Times of Zambia, 30 APril and 12 August 1985.

^{Page 275 note 3} International Labour Office, Basic Needs in an Economy Under Pressure (Addis Ababa, 1981), p. 47.Google Scholar

^{Page 275 note 4} The category of small or poor peasants embraces all those officially classified as ‘subsistence’ farmers – defined by the Government as those who market half or less of their output – and overlaps with those officially termed as ‘emergent’. These two categories of farmers together produced, in the 1980s, around 60 per cent of all marketed maize.

^{Page 275 note 5} Some middle and probably small peasants have recently engaged in cotton production in the Southern and Central Provinces.

^{Page 275 note 6} Times of Zambia and Zambia Daily Mail, 30 August 1985.

^{Page 276 note 1} I.L.O. Jaspa Employment Advisory Mission, Narrowing the Gaps: planning for basic needs and productive employment in Zambia (Addis Ababa, 1977), p. 79.Google Scholar

^{Page 276 note 2} Kiepper, Robert, ‘Zambian Agricultural Structure and Performance’, in Ben, Turok (ed), Development in Zambia (London, 1979, 2nd edn.), p. 147.Google Scholar

^{Page 276 note 3} Zambia's Storage Requirements, p. 1.

^{Page 276 note 4} Ibid. p. 26.

^{Page 276 note 5} Narrowing the Gaps, pp. 339–41.

^{Page 277 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 12 June 1985.

^{Page 277 note 2} Times of Zambia, 12 July 1984.

^{Page 277 note 3} Ibid. 29 September 1983.

^{Page 277 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail, 8 July 1985.

^{Page 277 note 5} Ibid. 6 July 20 and 30 August 1985.

^{Page 278 note 1} Report of the Auditor-General for the Financial Year Ended December 1983 (Lusaka, 1984), p. 19.Google Scholar

^{Page 278 note 2} Times of Zambia, 1 November 1985.

^{Page 278 note 3} Take, for example, the following moderate judgement of the I.L.O. authors of Narrowing the Gaps, pp. 78–9: ‘One is struck by a neglect of agriculture, by the low priority given to rural development in national planning…in the allocation of economic resources and skilled manpower, and overall, by the absence of a clear and coherent framework for rural development’.

^{Page 278 note 4} The selling of the Japanese farming machinery may, of course, have placed this equipment in the hands of individual commercial farmers who were able to obtain good and quick advantages from their acquisitions.

^{Page 279 note 1} The I.L.O. has useful comments on earlier producer prices in Basic Needs in an Economy Under Pressure, p. 62.

^{Page 279 note 2} Zambia Daily Mail, 21 October 1985. Additional incentives with similar effects are a foreign-exchange allocation for large producers and allowances on the depreciation of farm machinery.

^{Page 279 note 3} Office of the President, National Commission for Development Planning, Guidelines (Lusaka, 03 1985), pp. 7–8.Google Scholar

^{Page 279 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail and the Times of Zambia, 9 October 1984.

^{Page 280 note 1} Its yield recently was 13.9 tonnes of sugar per hectare. Times of Zambia, 20 September 1984.

^{Page 280 note 2} Zambia Daily Mail, 10 December 1984, and Sunday Times (Lusaka), 24 03 1985. The Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation is the country's largest state conglomerate.Google Scholar

^{Page 280 note 3} Times of Zambia, 2 November 1985.

^{Page 280 note 4} Ibid. 13 February 1985, and Zambia Daily Mail,14 March 1985.

^{Page 280 note 5} Zambia Daily Mail, 9, and 14 March 1985, and Times of Zambia, 14 and 15 March 1985.

^{Page 280 note 6} Zambia Daily Mail, 28 March 1985.

^{Page 280 note 7} Times of Zambia, 25 April 1985.

^{Page 281 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 25 July 1985.

^{Page 281 note 2} Zambia's Storage Requirements, p. 73. Lusaka Province until 1980 was a part of the Central Province.

^{Page 281 note 3} Provincial Planning Unit, Province, Lusaka, A Blueprint for Agricultural Development in Lusaka Province, November 1984, p. 11. The full extent of state land was, however, only about 6·5 per cent of Zambia's total area.Google Scholar

^{Page 281 note 4} Ibid. p. 11.

^{Page 282 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 14 December 1984, and 10 April 1985. Galaun had bought the farm for K340,000 from its previous owner; Times of Zambia, 30 April 1985.

^{Page 282 note 2} Zambia Daily Mail, 18 December 1984.

^{Page 282 note 3} Manifestly so with regard to the landownership of many top government figures; and also in the admission of Bautis Kapula, member of the Central Committee for Lusaka Province. Times of Zambia, 1 November 1985.

^{Page 282 note 4} Zambia Daily Mail, 12 October 1985. Kavindele is managing director of Woodgate Holdings, which is among other things an automobile importer and distributor.

^{Page 282 note 5} Ibid.

^{Page 282 note 6} Statistics are almost unobtainable in this area, but the automobiles which are imported are often luxury ones for the use of leading members of the parastatals and Ministries.

^{Page 283 note 1} Zambia Daily Mail, 22 November 1985.

^{Page 283 note 2} Rifkind, Malcolm, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Minister of State, added that co-operation between the two countries was ‘very good’, and that Zambia would ‘continue to be an important beneficiary of British aid’. Times of Zambia, 20 September 1984.Google Scholar

^{Page 283 note 3} According to ibid. 10 July 1985, the United States food aid to Zambia then exceeded K264 million in value.

^{Page 283 note 4} Frank Wisner, a State Department official and former U.S. Ambassador to Zambia, was speaking at a conference on the Zambian economy in New York. Zambia Daily Mail, 6 July and 1 November 1985.

^{Page 283 note 5} Mwansa, Allast, ‘Export Instability and the Public Debt –the Case of Zambia’, University of Zambia, Lusaka, 3 01 1985, p. 11.Google Scholar

^{Page 283 note 6} Times of Zambia, 22 July 1985, and The Economist, 8 June 1985.

^{Page 283 note 7} Wulf, J., ‘Policy Targets of the IMF Package’, University of Zambia, 6 02 1985.Google Scholar

^{Page 284 note 1} Ibid. p. 1.

^{Page 284 note 2} See Good, Kenneth, ‘The Reproduction of Weakness in the State and Agriculture: Zambian experience, in African Affairs (London), 85, 339, 04 1986.Google Scholar