Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-cnmwb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-24T17:44:19.591Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Between party capitalism and market reforms – understanding sector differences in Rwanda*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2015

Pritish Behuria
Pritish Behuria*
Affiliation:
Department of Development Studies, SOAS – University of London, Thornhaugh Street, Russell Square, London WC1H 0XG, United Kingdom
*
Email:pb23@soas.ac.uk; pritishbehuria@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Different strategies have been used by the Rwandan government to promote capitalist accumulation. In some sectors, party and military owned enterprises are predominant. In others, the government has chosen to embrace market-led reforms. Ultimately, the vulnerability experienced by ruling elites contributes to the choice of how capital accumulation is promoted in different sectors. Ruling elites use party and military enterprises to centralise rents and establish control over the direction of economic policy. However, centralising rents is a political choice and excludes individuals from developing access to rents. The pyrethrum sector shows that the use of such groups has resulted in unequal outcomes despite increases in productivity. Reduced international prices have stunted further productivity. Conversely, the mining sector shows evidence of the pursuit of market-led reforms. These reforms have been accompanied by rapid growth in domestic production and exports. Foreign investment was necessary in order to bring capital and expertise to the sector. However, the government has struggled to retain the capacity to enforce legislation and discipline foreign investors in line with national priorities. Both sectors show evidence that ruling elites have been prompted by vulnerability to commit to economic development. Constraints that have accompanied strategies pursued in these sectors have forced the government to work ‘reactively’ to achieve strategic targets.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 53 , Issue 3 , September 2015 , pp. 415 - 450
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Between 2011 and 2015, several research trips were conducted for the author's PhD research. This paper is a product of that research. Many respondents offered their time and shared their ideas for this research. I am extremely grateful to them. Two anonymous reviewers provided thoughtful comments that improved this paper. All errors and omissions are my own.

References

REFERENCES

Acemoglu, D. & Robinson, J.. 2012. Why Nations Fail: the origins of power, prosperity and poverty. New York, NY: Crown Business.Google Scholar
African Development Bank (AfDB). 2014. Improving Economic Competitiveness to bring about Shared Growth. African Development Bank.Google Scholar
Agebaz, B. 2013. ‘Political parties in business: rent seekers, developmentalists or both?’, Journal of Development Studies 49, 11: 1467–83.Google Scholar
Amsden, A. 1989. Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and late industrialization. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Andrews, M., Pritchett, L. & Woolcock, M.. 2013. ‘Escaping capability traps through Problem Driven Iterative Adaptation (PDIA)’, World Development 51: 234–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ansoms, A. 2009. ‘Re-engineering rural society: the visions and ambitions of the Rwandan Elite’, African Affairs 108, 431: 289–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beswick, D. 2010. ‘Managing dissent in a post-genocide environment: the challenge of political space in Rwanda’, Development and Change 41, 2: 225–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bezy, F. 1990. Rwanda, 1962–1989: Bilan socio-economique d'un regime. Louvain: L'université Catholique de Louvain.Google Scholar
Booth, D. & Golooba-Mutebi, F.. 2012. ‘Developmental patrimonialism? the case of Rwanda’, African Affairs 111, 444: 379–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, D. & Golooba-Mutebi, F.. 2013. ‘Bilateral Cooperation and Local Power Dynamics: the case of Rwanda’, Commissioned study. London: Overseas Development Institute.Google Scholar
Booth, D. & Golooba-Mutebi, F.. 2014. ‘Policy for agriculture and horticulture in Rwanda: a different political economy?’, Development Policy Review 32, S2: S173–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castells, M. 1992. ‘Four Asian tigers with a dragon head: a comparative analysis of state, economy and society in the Asian Pacific Rim’, in Henderson, J. & Appelbaum, R., eds. States and Development in the Asian Pacific Rim. London: Sage, 33–70.Google Scholar
Chang, H.-J. 2002. Kicking Away the Ladder: development strategy in historical perspective. London: Anthem Press.Google Scholar
Cramer, C. & Pontara, N.. 1998. ‘Rural poverty and poverty alleviation in Mozambique: what's missing from the debate?’, Journal of Modern African Studies 36, 1: 101–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuvelier, J. & Messiant, C.. 2004. ‘Réseaux de l'ombre et configurations regionals: Le cas du commerce du coltan en République démocratique du Congo’, Politique Africaine 93: 82–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuvelier, J. & Raeymaekers, T.. 2002. ‘European Companies and the Coltan Trade: Supporting the War Economy in the DRC – Five Case Studies’, Discussion paper. Antwerp: Institute of Development Policy and Management (IOB).Google Scholar
Department for International Development (DfiD). 2010. Building Peaceful States and Societies: DfiD practice paper. London: DfiD.Google Scholar
Devereux, S. 2012. ‘3rd Annual Review of DfiD Support to the Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP), Rwanda’. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.Google Scholar
Di John, J. & Putzel, J.. 2009. ‘Political Settlements: Issue Paper’. Birmingham: Governance and Social Development Resource Center.Google Scholar
Doner, R., Ritchie, B. & Slater, D.. 2005. ‘Systemic vulnerability and the origins of developmental states: northeast and southeast Asia in comparative perspective’, International Organization 59, 2: 327–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrett, N. 2008. Certified Trading Chains in Mineral Production and The Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative: synergies and scope for collaboration. Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaftren und Rohstoffe.Google Scholar
Gathani, S. & Stoelinga, D.. 2013. Understanding Rwanda's Agribusiness and Manufacturing Sectors. Kigali: International Growth Centre.Google Scholar
Global Witness. 2013. Putting Principles into Practice: risks and opportunities for conflict-free sourcing in Eastern Congo. Global Witness.Google Scholar
Gokgur, N. 2012. ‘Rwanda's Ruling-party owned enterprises: do they enhance or impede development?’, Discussion paper. Antwerp: Institute of Development Policy and Management (IOB).Google Scholar
Golooba-Mutebi, F. 2008. ‘Collapse, War and Reconstruction in Rwanda: an analytical narrative on state-making’, Working paper No. 28. London: Crisis States Research Centre.Google Scholar
Golooba-Mutebi, F. 2013. ‘Politics, Political Settlements and Social Change in Post-Colonial Rwanda’, Working paper No. 24. Manchester: Effective States and Inclusive Development Research Centre.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagmann, T. & Abbink, J.. 2011. ‘Twenty years of revolutionary democratic Ethiopia: 1991–2011’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 5, 4: 579–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, S. 2013. ‘Thinking About the Politics of Inclusive Development: Towards a Relational Approach’, Working paper No. 23. Manchester: Effective States and Inclusive Development Research Centre.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillman, J. 1997. ‘Chartered companies and the development of the tin industry in Belgian Africa, 1900–1939’, African Economic History 25: 149–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschman, A. 1979. ‘The turn to authoritarianism in Latin America and the search for its economic determinants’, in Collier, D., ed. The New Authoritarianism in Latin America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 61–98.Google Scholar
Huggins, C. 2013. ‘Seeing Like a Neoliberal State? Authoritarian High Modernism, Commercialization and Governmentality in Rwanda's Agricultural Reform’, PhD dissertation, Carleton University.Google Scholar
Huggins, C. 2014. ‘‘Control grabbing’ and small-scale agricultural intensification: emerging patterns of state-facilitated ‘agricultural investment’ in Rwanda’, Journal of Peasant Studies 41, 3: 365–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch (HRW). 2014. Repression Across Borders: attacks and threats against Rwandan opponents and critics abroad. Human Rights Watch.Google Scholar
Ingelaere, B. 2010. ‘Peasants, power and ethnicity: a bottom-up perspective on Rwanda's political transition’, African Affairs 109, 435: 273–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingram, S. 2014. ‘Political Settlements: the History of an Idea in Policy and Theory’, SSGM Discussion Paper No. 5.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group (ICG). 2002. Rwanda at the End of the Transition: a necessary political liberalization. International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
Jackson, S. 2002. ‘Making a killing: criminality and coping in the Kivu war economy’, Review of African Political Economy 29, 93/94: 517–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jowell, M. 2014. ‘Cohesion through socialization: liberation, tradition and modernity in the forging of the Rwanda Defence Force (RDF)’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 8, 2: 278–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelsall, T. 2013. Business, Politics, and the State in Africa: challenging the orthodoxies on growth and transformation. London: Zed Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, M. 2000. ‘Rent-seeking as process’, in Khan, M. & Sundaram, J., eds. Rents, Rent-Seeking and Economic Development: theory and evidence in Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 70–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, M. 2007. ‘Governance, economic growth and development since the 1960s’, in Ocampo, J-A., Sundaram, J. & Vos, R., eds. Growth Divergences: explaining differences in economic performance. London: Zed Books, 285–323.Google Scholar
Khan, M. 2010. ‘Political Settlements and the Governance of Growth-Enhancing Institutions’, Unpublished monograph. <http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/9968/>..>Google Scholar
Khan, M. & Sundaram, J., eds. 2000. Rents, Rent-Seeking and Economic Development: theory and evidence from Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjaer, A-M. 2015. ‘Political settlements and productive sector policies: understanding sector differences in Uganda’, World Development 68: 230–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, A. 1974. ‘The political economy of the rent-seeking society’, American Economic Review 64, 3: 291–303.Google Scholar
Laws, E. 2012. ‘Political Settlements, Elite Pacts, and Governments of National Unity’, Developmental Leadership Programme Background Paper 10.Google Scholar
Levy, B. 2013. ‘Seeking the elusive developmental knife-edge: Zambia and Mozambique – a tale of two countries’, in North, D., Wallis, J., Webb, S. & Weingast, B., eds. In the Shadow of Violence: politics, economics, and the problems of development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 112–48.Google Scholar
Lijphart, A. 1977. Democracy in Plural Societies: a comparative exploration. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lin, J. 2012. New Structural Economics: a framework for rethinking development and policy. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, J. & Chang, H.-J.. 2009. ‘Should industrial policy in developing countries conform to comparative advantage or defy it? A debate between Justin Lin and Ha-Joon Chang’, Development Policy Review 27, 5: 483–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindemann, S. 2008. ‘Do Inclusive Elite Bargains Matter? A Research Framework for Understanding the Causes of Civil War in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Discussion Paper No. 15. London: Crisis States Research Centre.Google Scholar
Lindemann, S. 2010. ‘Exclusionary Elite Bargains and Civil War Onset: The Case of Uganda’, Working Paper No. 76. London: Crisis States Research Centre.Google Scholar
Longman, T. 2002. ‘The complex reasons for Rwanda's engagement in Congo’, in Clark, J., ed. The African Stakes of the Congo War. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 129–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN). 2013. Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy: 2013–2018. Kigali: Government of Rwanda.Google Scholar
Ministry of Natural Resources (MINIRENA). 2009. Five-year Strategic Plan for the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Sector (2009–2013). Kigali: Government of Rwanda.Google Scholar
Ministry of Trade and Industry (MINICOM). 2010. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Development Policy. Kigali: Government of Rwanda.Google Scholar
National Bank of Rwanda (BNR). 2014. National Bank of Rwanda Annual Report 2013/14. Kigali: Government of Rwanda.Google Scholar
North, D., Wallis, J. & Weingast, B.. 2009. Violence and Social Orders: a conceptual framework for interpreting recorded human history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyamwasa, K., Rudasingwa, T., Karegeya, P. & Gahima, G.. 2010. Rwanda Briefing, <bit.ly/12qjKPp>, accessed 21.8.2013.,+accessed+21.8.2013.>Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 2011. Supporting Statebuilding in Situations of Conflict and Fragility: policy guidance. DAC Guidelines and Reference Series. Paris: OECD Publishing.Google Scholar
Palma, J.G. 2011. ‘Homogeneous middles vs. heterogeneous tails, and the end of the ‘inverted-u’: it's all about the share of the rich’, Development and Change 42: 87–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perks, R. 2013. ‘Digging into the past: critical reflections on Rwanda's pursuit for a domestic mineral economy’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 7, 4: 732–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pourtier, R. 2004. The Mining Economy in the Kivu and its Regional Implications. Paris: Initiative for Central Africa.Google Scholar
Prunier, G. 2009. Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Putzel, J. 2002. ‘Developmental states and crony capitalists’, in Masina, P., ed. Rethinking Development in East Asia. Richmond: Curzon Press, 161–88.Google Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2001. ‘Briefing: the Democratic Republic of Congo, from Kabila to Kabila’, African Affairs 100: 311–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2004. ‘Rwanda ten years on: from genocide to dictatorship’, African Affairs 103: 177–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2006. ‘Post-1994 politics in Rwanda: problematising ‘liberation’ and ‘democratisation’, Third World Quarterly 27, 6: 1103–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2011. ‘Constructing the truth, dealing with dissent, domesticating the world: governance in post-genocide Rwanda’, African Affairs 110, 438: 1–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyntjens, F. 2013. Political Governance in Post-Genocide Rwanda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudasingwa, T. 2013. Healing A Nation – A Testimony: waging and winning a peaceful revolution to unite and heal a broken Rwanda. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.Google Scholar
Rwanda Development Board (RDB). 2013. Tourism Report 2012. Kigali: Government of Rwanda.Google Scholar
Rwanda Investment Group (RIG). 2009. Rwanda Investment Group Annual Report 2008. Kigali: Rwanda Investment Group.Google Scholar
Sen, K. 2013. ‘The political dynamics of economic growth’, World Development 47: 71–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Society for International Development (SID). 2014. One People One Destiny – the future of inequality in East Africa. Society for International Development, <www.sidint.net>..>Google Scholar
Somers, M. 2012. Stuck: Rwandan youth and the struggle for adulthood. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar
Stearns, J. 2011. Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: the collapse of the Congo and the great war of Africa. New York, NY: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Stearns, J. 2012. From CNDP to M23: the evolution of an armed movement in Eastern Congo. London: Rift Valley Institute.Google Scholar
Stearns, J. 2013. PARECO: land, local strongmen and the roots of militia politics in North Kivu. London: Rift Valley Institute.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, J., Lin, J., Monga, C. and Patel, E.. 2013. ‘Industrial Policy in the African Context’. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 6633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Temesgen, T., Ezemenari, K. & Munyakazi, L.. 2006. The Rwandan Industrial and Mining Survey (RIMS), 2005: Survey Report and Major Findings. World Bank.Google Scholar
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). 2014. Services Policy Review – Rwanda. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
United Nations Security Council (UNSC). 2001. Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 12 April (S/2001/357).Google Scholar
USAID Alliances in Action. 2010. Rwandan Pyrethrum Value Chain Alliance. USAID.Google Scholar
Uwizeyimana, L. 1988. L'Activité Minière Au Rwanda: d'une exploitation marginale a l'effondrement. Bordeaux: CRET, University of Bordeaux.Google Scholar
Vaughan, S. & Gebremichael, M.. 2011. ‘Rethinking Business and Politics in Ethiopia: The Role of EFFORT, the Endowment Fund for the Rehabilitation of Tigray’, Research Report 02. London: Africa Politics and Power Programme Working Paper.Google Scholar
Vlassenroot, K. & Romkema, H.. 2002. ‘The emergence of a new order? Resources and war in Eastern Congo’, Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, 28 October. <http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-159674>.Google Scholar
Vu, T. 2007. ‘State formation and the origins of developmental states in South Korea and Indonesia’, Studies in Comparative International Development 41, 4: 27–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wade, R. 1990. Governing the Market: economic theory and the role of the government in East Asian industrialization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitfield, L. & Buur, L.. 2014. ‘The politics of industrial policy: ruling elites and their alliances’, Third World Quarterly 35, 1: 126–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Bank. 1981. Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: an agenda for action. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Yager, T. 2004. The Mineral Industry of Rwanda. United States Geological Survey.Google Scholar

NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

Allen, K. 2009. ‘Human cost of mining in DR Congo’, BBC News, 2 September.Google Scholar
Asaba, S. 2015. ‘Report: Nearly half of Masters degree holders underemployed’, The New Times, 15 January.Google Scholar
BBC News Africa. 2011. ‘Rwanda gives DR Congo back tonnes of smuggled minerals’, 3 November.Google Scholar
Engineering News Online. 2002. ‘Rwanda breathing life into flower exports’, Engineering News Online, 17 January. <http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/rwanda-breathing-life-into-flower-exports-2002-01-17>, (accessed 2 June 2013),+(accessed+2+June+2013)>Google Scholar
Gasore, B. 2013. ‘Pyrethrum farmers fail to satisfy growing demand’, The New Times, 12 January.Google Scholar
Habimana, S. 2013. ‘Musanze pyrethrum farmers decry ‘mistreatment’ by processing firms’, The New Times, 6 August.Google Scholar
Kagire, E. 2013. ‘Kagame drops last two RPF ‘historicals’’, The East African, 1 June.Google Scholar
Kalan, J. 2012. ‘Pyrethrum: a white flower with significant business potential for Rwanda’, How We Made It in Africa, 30 January. <bit.ly/AsQalX>, (accessed 1.5.2013).,+(accessed+1.5.2013).>Google Scholar
Karuhanga, J. 2014. ‘RDF retires 800 military officers’, The New Times, 16 July.Google Scholar
Masibo, K. 2004. ‘Damaged pyrethrum factory set to reopen’, The Daily Nation, 15 September.Google Scholar
Mazimpaka, M. 2013. ‘Who owns Crystal Ventures’, <http://en.igihe.com/news/who-owns-crystal-ventures.html>, (accessed 22.4.2013),+(accessed+22.4.2013)>Google Scholar
Mugisha, I. 2014a. ‘Gatumba mining firm is charting path to normalisation, says MD’, The New Times, 14 July.Google Scholar
Mugisha, I. 2014b. ‘Imena speaks out on Gatumba Concession, conflict minerals’, The New Times, 28 July.Google Scholar
Mwenda, A. 2013. ‘The myth of Congolese wealth’, The Independent, 25 January.Google Scholar
Namara, F. 2007. ‘Farmgate prices of pyrethrum increases’, The New Times, 6 December.Google Scholar
Namata, B. 2009. ‘Country explores increase in production of pyrethrum’, The New Times, 22 April.Google Scholar
Namata, B. 2014. ‘Rwanda to review mining law in a bid to attract new investors’, The East African. 1 March.Google Scholar
Namata, B. 2015. ‘RPF-affiliated Telco to list on Rwandan Bourse’, The East African, 14 April.Google Scholar
Ndikubwayezu, G. 2009. ‘Military officers accused of embezzling Rwf 700 Million’, The New Times, 15 July.Google Scholar
Ngabonziza, D. 2015. ‘Kagame says Rwanda not plundering DRC Coltan’, KT Press, 15 January.Google Scholar
Nkurunziza, M. 2014. ‘Low output hurts pyrethrum processors as farmers shun crop’, The New Times, 8 October.Google Scholar
Polgreen, L. 2008. ‘Congo's riches, looted by renegade troops’, The New York Times, 15 November.Google Scholar
Special Correspondent Rwanda Today. 2013. ‘History as Senior Military Officials get Honourable Retirement’, The East African, 1 November.Google Scholar
Special Correspondent. 2014. ‘Tracking Rwanda liberation icons who fell out of the limelight’, Rwanda Today, 5 July.Google Scholar
Tabaro, J. 2013. ‘Gatsinzi, five other generals retire’, The New Times, 26 October.Google Scholar

Interviews

Michael Biryabarema, Deputy Director General – MINIRENA, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Gabriel Bizimungu, Managing Director – Horizon SOPYRWA, Kigali, November 2011.Google Scholar
Gabriel Bizimungu, Managing Director – Horizon SOPYRWA, Kigali, May 2013.Google Scholar
Consultant A, Kigali, February 2012.Google Scholar
Consultant B, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Domestic Investor, Kigali, May 2013.Google Scholar
European Union, the Netherlands and United Kingdom Embassy officials, Kigali, January–May 2012.Google Scholar
Foreign Investor, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Francis Gatare, Former Principal Secretary to the President, Current Chief Executive Officer, RDB, Kigali, May 2012.Google Scholar
James Gatera, Bank of Kigali and former CVL shareholder, Kigali, April 2012.Google Scholar
Eugene Haguma, CEO – Horizon Group, Kigali, February 2012.Google Scholar
Eugene Haguma, CEO – Horizon Group, Kigali, May 2013.Google Scholar
Evode Imena, then-Geologist and now-Minister-of-State, MINIRENA, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Evode Imena, Minister-of-State, MINIRENA, Kigali, January 2015.Google Scholar
Bill Kayonga, National Agriculture Export Board, January 2015.Google Scholar
Jean-Philippe Kayobotsi, formerly working at the Office of the President and the African Development Bank, Kigali, April 2012.Google Scholar
Faustin Mbundu, former Chairman – Private Sector Federation (PSF), Kigali, April 2012.Google Scholar
MINAGRI Official, Kigali, February 2012.Google Scholar
John Mirenge, CEO – RwandAir, Kigali, Kigali, May 2012.Google Scholar
Gerald Mukubu, Acting CEO – Private Sector Federation, Kigali, January 2015.Google Scholar
Hannington Namara, Former CEO – Private Sector Federation, Kigali, April 2012.Google Scholar
Andrew Nyamvumba, CEO – Ngali Holdings, Kigali, November 2011.Google Scholar
Office of the President, Kigali, May 2012.Google Scholar
Raphael Ritter de Zahony, Phoenix Metals, Kigali, May 2013.Google Scholar
Emery Rubagenga, Owner – ROKA Rwanda, Kigali, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Augustin Ruhigira, Executive Secretary – Federation Des Cooperatives Minieres Au Rwanda (FECOMIRWA), Kigali, April 2012.Google Scholar
Ernest Rwamucyo, High Commissioner of Rwanda in India, New Delhi, December 2014.Google Scholar
Philip Schutte, Consultant – MINIRENA, March 2012.Google Scholar
Jean-Louis Uwitonze, Director General – Planning, MINICOM, Kigali, March 2012.Google Scholar
Emmanuel Uwizeye, Director of Land and Mines – MINIRENA, Kigali, 7 May, 2013.Google Scholar
Emmanuel Uwizeye, Director of Land and Mines – MINIRENA, Kigali, January 2015.Google Scholar
Fidele Uwizeye, Former Advisor – MINIRENA, Kigali, November 2011.Google Scholar
Fidele Uwizeye, Former advisor – MINIRENA, Kigali, February 2012.Google Scholar
Fidele Uwizeye, Former Advisor – MINIRENA, Kigali, May 2013.Google Scholar