How did Francis Drake navigate his ship when in 1577 he embarked upon his famous voyage round the world ? Strictly speaking he did not navigate her, for the task was delegated to subordinate officers. The Pelican (or Golden Hind as she was later renamed) carried, as was customary, a master and a pilot whose duty it was to make the necessary observations and lay the ship upon her course. But these had signed on for a supposed voyage to Alexandria to load currants, and Drake knew well enough that no English pilot could then compare with a pilot of Spain or Portugal, whether in training, experience or equipment: for these nations, as pioneers of the Great Discoveries, had also taken the lead in the development of nautical science and in the formal schooling of seamen. That explains why Captain Francis furnished himself with the latest chart from Lisbon, and why, when he reached African waters, he kidnapped a Portuguese pilo to sail him into the Pacific, only to maroon the unfortunate man in Central America when he had served his turn and a Spaniard was indicated for the next stage of the voyage. Hitherto no English ship had left the Atlantic, and apart from a few men trained in the Muscovy Company's service the average English sailor laughed at the idea of navigating with charts and instruments. He had his compass, he knew his landmarks, and once he was in soundings he could cast the lead and feel his way into harbour blindfold. To see a man ‘shooting the Sun’ (as it was already termed) with a cross-staff was an occasion for mockery. ‘Have you strook it?’ he would cry, ‘Have you strook it?’ And as for charts, he wanted none of your sheepskins, he could make his voyage as well upon a board! It was upon a prepared sheepskin that the mediaeval charts were drawn and painted, the neck to the left, while the ‘board’ was the traverse-board marked with the thirty-two rhumbs. These were pierced with holes at regular intervals, into which pegs were inserted at each turn of the sand-glass, thus recording the time sailed on any particular point of the compass.