1. Wilensky, Harold, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley, 1975).Google Scholar Comparing government expenditures, in 1979 the federal government devoted 57.2 percent of its general government spending to welfare-state programs, as compared to 67.8 percent spent by West Germany, 71.9 percent by France, and 75.3 percent by Denmark. See Rein, Martin and Rainwater, Lee, “The Public/Private Mix,” 3–24, in Public/Private Interplay in Social Protection (Armonk, N.Y., 1986), 6.Google Scholar

2. The terms “employee benefits,” “fringe benefits,” and “collectively bargained welfare benefits” will be used interchangeably.

3. Kerns, Wilmer and Glanz, Milton, “Private Social Welfare Expenditures, 1972–1985,” Social Security Bulletin 51(8) (1988): 3–11Google Scholar, and Waldo, Daniel, Levit, Katharine, and Lazenby, Helen, “National Health Expenditures, 1985,” Health Care Financing Review 8(1) (1986): 1–22Google ScholarPubMed; Rein and Rainwater, “The Public/Private Mix,” 17.

4. Shalev, Michael, “The Social Democratic Model and Beyond: Two Generations of Research on the Welfare State,” Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 316.Google Scholar

5. The primary proponents of this view are Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism: Work, Unions and Politics in Sweden (London, 1978)Google Scholar; Stephens, John, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Castles, Francis, The Social Democratic Image of Society (London, 1978).Google Scholar

6. State and local federations often broke with their national unions and the national federation to back some programs. Orloff, Ann Shola and Skocpol, Theda, “Why Not Equal Protection? Explaining the Politics of Public Social Spending in Britain, 1900–1911, and the United States, 1880's–1920,” American Sociological Review 49 (1984): 726–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Quadagno, Jill, “Welfare Capitalism and the Social Security Act of 1935,” American Sociological Review 49 (1984): 632–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robertson, David Brian, “The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare-State Development in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Policy History 1 (1989): 261–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Horowitz, Ruth, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor (New Brunswick, N.J., 1978)Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda and Ikenberry, John, “The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective,” Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87–148Google Scholar; Witte, Edwin, The Development of the Social Security Act (Madison, Wise, 1963).Google Scholar William Green to Henry Morgenthau, 5 November 1941, and William Green to Congressman R. Doughton, 23 January 1942, Florence Thorne Files, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, (hereafter SHSW); Quadagno, Jill, The Transformation of Old Age Security (Chicago, 1988).Google Scholar

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8. Helen Baker and Dorothy Dahl, Group Health Insurance and Sickness Benefits and Collective Bargaining, Report No. 72, Industrial Relations Section, Princeton University, 1945; Kennedy, James B., Beneficiary Features of American Trade Unions (Baltimore, 1908)Google Scholar; Munts, Raymond, Bargaining for Health (Madison, Wise, 1976)Google Scholar; Fred Slavick, “The Provision of Disability and Medical Care Insurance Through Collective Bargaining: An Analysis of Ten Programs,” Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1953; Stevens, Beth, “Blurring the Boundaries: How the Federal Government Has Influenced Welfare Benefits in the Private Sector,” 123–48, in Weir, Margaret, Orloff, Ann Shola, and Skocpol, Theda, eds., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988)Google Scholar; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (hereafter BLS) Beneficial Activities of American Trade Unions (Washington, D.C., 1928).Google Scholar Most union plans did not survive the Depression; see Greenough, William and King, Francis, Pension Plans and Public Policy (New York, 1976)Google Scholar; BLS, “Benefits Payments by Standard National and International Unions, 1933,” Monthly Labor Review 39 (1934): 1365–69.Google Scholar

9. Harvey Brown to B. Jewell, 24 August 1939, IAM Papers, SHSW; BLS, Union Health and Welfare Plans–1947, Bulletin 900 (Washington, D.C., 1948); BLS, Care of Aged Persons in the United States, Bulletin 465 (Washington, D.C., 1929); Munts, Bargaining for Health.

10. Edward McGrady, “Old Age Pensions,” American Federationist, May 1930.

11. Minutes of Meeting of Staff and Business Agents, 15 May 1943, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Emil Rieve, “Proposed Programs for a Union Conference on Health Insurance,” 24 May 1945, TWUA Papers, SHSW.

12. William Green to C. F. Brewster, 23 March 1936, William Green Papers, George Meany Archives, Silver Spring, Maryland.

13. Surprisingly, the more left-wing CIO unions were the pioneers in demanding fringe benefits, while the more conservative AFL unions tended to cling to the expansion of public plans. This issue is beyond the scope of this paper. See Quadagno, The Transformation, and Stevens, “Blurring the Boundaries.”

14. Frank Dobbin, “The Privatization of American Social Insurance: Organizations, Fringe Benefits, and the State, 1920–1950,” paper presented at the American Sociological Association Meetings, August 1988, Atlanta, Ga.; Slavick, “The Provision of Disability”; Robert Dvorsky, “The Development of Negotiated Health Insurance and Sickness Benefit Plans of the Steel, Automobile, and Electrical Equipment Industries,” Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1956; Tilove, Robert, “Social and Economic Implementation of Private Pensions,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 14 (1960): 24–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The Textile Industry in the Post-War Era,” n.d., TWUA Papers, SHSW; American Federation of Labor, Convention Proceedings, 44th Annual Convention (Washington, D.C., 1946); Congress of Industrial Organizations, Daily Proceedings of the 8th Constitutional Convention of the CIO (Atlantic City, N.J., November 1946).Google Scholar

15. Rowe, Evan Keith, “Employee-Benefit Plans Under Collective Bargaining, Mid-1950,” Monthly Labor Review 61 (1951): 156.Google Scholar These last statistics refer to covered individuals, only some of whom are covered by collectively bargained plans. Reed, Louis, “Private Health Insurance: Coverage and Financial Experience,” Social Security Bulletin 30 (1967): 3–22Google Scholar; Skolnick, Alfred, “Private Pension Plans, 1950–1974,” Social Security Bulletin 39 (1976): 3–17.Google Scholar

16. Bernstein, Merton, The Future of Private Pensions (New York, 1964)Google Scholar; Greenough and King, Pension Plans; Harbrecht, Paul, Pension Funds and Economic Power (New York, 1954)Google Scholar; Munnell, Alicia, The Economics of Private Pensions (Washington, D.C., 1982)Google Scholar; Dearing, Charles, Industrial Pensions (Washington, D.C., 1954)Google Scholar; There are two additional literatures that discuss the history of employee benefits that are not directly relevant here. The first is a history of modern employee benefits from the perspective of corporations; see Dobbin, “The Privatization of American Social Insurance.” The second focuses on predecessors of fringe benefits, the company-sponsored plans known as “Welfare Capitalism” that flourished in the first decades of this century. See Edward Berkowitz and Kim McQuaid, Creating the Welfare State: The Political Economy of 20th Century Reform. New York, 1980; Brandes, Stuart, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880–1940 (Chicago, 1976)Google Scholar; and Brody, David, “The Rise and Decline of Welfare Capitalism,” 147–78, in Braeman, John, Bremner, Robert, and Brody, David, eds., Change and Continuity in Twentieth Century America: The 1920's (Columbus, Ohio, 1968).Google Scholar

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18. Lichtenstein, Nelson, “From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era,” 122–52, in Fraser, Steve and Gerstle, Gary, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, 1989)Google Scholar; E. Rieve to All Locals, 17 July 1946, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Grand Lodge Representative Dameron to A. J. Hayes, 9 February 1948, IAM Papers, SHSW; Walter Reuther, UAW President's Report 1946–1951 (Detroit, UAW), 8; Harris, Howell, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940's (Madison, Wise, 1982)Google Scholar; Lichtenstein, Nelson, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (New York, 1982)Google Scholar; Stein, Bruno, “Labor's Role in Government Agencies During World War II,” Journal of Economic History 17 (1957): 389–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19. This discussion does not imply that labor was shut out of politics entirely. The labor federations did maneuver around some of these restrictions by setting up political organizations that were legally separate from the unions. The campaign law sapped labor strength, however, by forcing the construction of elaborate countermeasures that complicated the task. Congressional committees investigated union activities in political campaigns on several occasions, thus ensuring that the labor movement did obey. See Josephson, Matthew, Sidney Hillman: Statesman of American Labor (New York, 1952).Google Scholar Memorandum from William Pollock to Staff, 17 May 1944, 10 July 1944, 21 August 1944, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Foster, James, The Union Politic: The CIO Political Action Committee (Columbia, Mo., 1975)Google Scholar; Harvey Brown to David Dubinsky, 6 February 1946, IAM Papers, SHSW; Carl Huhndorff to Harvey Brown, 7 October 1946; IAM Papers, SHSW; H. Brown to All Lodges, 3 March 1948, IAM Papers, SHSW.

20. Gallup, George, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (Westport, Conn.: 1972), 519.Google Scholar Americans consistently gave relatively positive approval to labor from 1936 to 1981 when measured by the only continuous source of data, the Gallup poll. The Gallup question tapped opinions on the general social value of unions, however, rather than feelings about the behavior of actual unions. Once specific union behaviors were mentioned, public opinion was more negative. See Lipset, S. M. and Schneider, William, The Confidence Gap: Business, Labor and Government in the Public Mind (New York, 1983), 203Google Scholar; Mills, C. Wright, The New Men of Power: America's Labor Leaders (New York, 1971)Google Scholar; Brown, Emily Clark, “The NLRB: Wagner Act through Taft-Hartley Law,” 179–214, in Warne, Colston E., ed., Labor in Postwar America (Brooklyn, 1949).Google Scholar

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22. Kroll, Jack, “Why Labor Is in Politics,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 27 October 1946Google Scholar; Minutes of the Meeting of the AFL and the CIO to Discuss Unity on Taft-Hartley, 1 May 1947, (Catherine Pollack Ellison Papers (hereafter KPE Papers), WPRL; Gallup, The Gallup Poll, 609.

23. Gray, Richard, “The Truth About Building Wages,” American Federationist 54 (1947): 6; Boris Shishkin, “Don't Blame Labor,” The American Federationist 53 (1946): 7Google Scholar; International Typographical Union (hereafter ITU), Monthly Bulletin 50 (1948): 11.Google Scholar

24. Murray, Philip, “Report to the Council of Economic Advisors,” Economic Outlook 9 (1948): 1Google Scholar; “Recommendations of the Executive Officers to the Meeting of the CIO Executive Board,” 30 August 1948, Walter Reuther Papers, WPRL.

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26. Goldman, Eric, The Crucial Decade – And After: America 1945–1960 (New York: Vintage, 1956)Google Scholar; Seidman, Joel, American Labor from Defense to Reconversion (Chicago, 1953)Google Scholar; Tomlins, Christopher, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880–1960 (New York, 1985).Google Scholar

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28. Economic Outlook VI(6) (1945); “Statement of William Green to Special Subcommittee of Labor, U.S. House of Representatives,” 1 July 1946; AFL Papers – Office of the President, SHSW; Cruikshank, Nelson, “Issues in Social Security” The American Federationist 54(2) (1947): 26–28Google Scholar; “Testimony of Emil Rieve Before Joint Committee of the Economic Report,” 26 June 1947, Walter Reuther Papers, WPRL; “Statement by Van A. Bittner, CIO, to Senate Appropriations Committee,” 12 May 1948, KPE Papers, WPRL; “Legislative Program Recommended to CIO Executive Board by CIO Executive Officers,” 30 August 1948, Walter Reuther Papers, WPRL; “Statement of Philip Murray to House Ways and Means Committee,” 12 April 1949, KPE Papers, WPRL; “Statement by William Green to Senate Finance Committee in Support of HR 6000, A Bill to Improve the Social Security System,” 1 March 1950, William Green Papers, Series 11, SHSW.

29. “Speech by Philip Murray over Radio KQV,” 24 December 1943, KPE Papers, WPRL; United Auto Workers, Proceedings of the 8th UAW-CIO Convention (Buffalo, N.Y., 1943)Google Scholar; R. Schrank to H. Brown, 8 November 1944, IAM Papers, SHSW; “Statement of Executive Council,” 7 February 1945, 6 August 1945, George Meany Archives; “Postwar Planning Committee, Interim Report on Social Security,” 12 May 1944, KPE Papers, WPRL; “Interim Report on Social Security”; “The AFL Post-War Program,” presented at the Post-War Forum, New York City, 12 April 1944, William Green Papers, George Meany Archives; Speech by Clinton Golden, “Labor's Views on American Economic Policies,” 29 April 1943, KPE Papers, WPRL; 21st Convention of the International Association of Machinists, 29 October 1945, New York City, IAM Papers, SHSW; Speech by John Brophy to the National Conference of Social Work, 24 May 1946, KPE Papers, WPRL; Memorandum to All CIO Unions from Philip Murray, 18 August 1945, Murray Papers, Catholic University Archives; American Federation of Labor Convention 1943, Boston, Florence Thome Files, SHSW; “Statement by Philip Murray to House Ways and Means”; “Statement by James Carey to the Democratic Convention Resolutions Committee,” 8 July 1948, KPE Papers, WPRL; Economic Outlook IV(1), (5)(1943), V(12)(1944), VII(4)(1946); G. Addes, “Statement Before Senate Committee on Labor and Education on Wagner-Murray-Dingell National Health Bill,” 23 May 1946, UAW Research Department Papers, WPRL; “Reference Memorandum for Dr. W. Sawyer on the Activities of the International Association of Machinists in Health and Rehabilitation Programs, n.d. (approx. 1952), IAM Papers, SHSW; Starr, Paul, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York, 1982)Google Scholar; Quadagno, , The Transformation; Martha Derthick, Policymaking for Social Security (Washington, D.C., 1979).Google Scholar

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32. Minutes of the Meeting of Top G.M. Negotiating Committee, 8 October 1946, Walter Reuther Papers, WPRL; “How New Union Demands on Pension Plan Differ from Industry Practice,” Collective Bargaining Bulletin, Report #128, 30 October 1947; Elmer Walker to E. Broeker, 1949, IAM Papers, SHSW; Labor Trends and Policies, Issue #35, 24 January 1949, Toledo, Ohio; “Welfare Benefits: 1949 Goal,” Business Week, 15 January 1949.

33. Walter Reuther to All UAW-CIO Local Union Presidents, 15 November 1946, Walter Reuther Papers, WPRL.

34. “Statement by Wm. Green to Special Subcommittee of House Labor Committee,” 1 July 1946, AFL Papers – Office of the President, SHSW; “Fringe Issues Are Basic,” Economic Outlook 7(2) (1947)Google Scholar; John Edelman, “Your TWUA Memo from Washington,” 2 January 1948, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Statement by Van A. Bittner to Subcommittee of Senate Appropriations Committee, 12 May 1948, KPE Papers, WPRL; Cruikshank, Nelson, “Issues in Social Security”; “AFL Day of Social Security,” American Federationist 56(5) (1949): 20Google Scholar; Economic Outlook 9(8) (1948); “Welfare Plans for Workers.” The American Federationist 56(10) (1949); “Statement by Philip Murray to House Ways and Means”; “Statement by William Green to Senate Finance Committee, 1 March 1950, AFL Papers – Office of the President, SHSW; ITU, Proceedings of the 88th Session of the ITU, 47.

35. Congress of Industrial Organizations, “CIO Pension Gains Mean Victory for All,” Economic Outlook 9(12) (1949).

36. Nelson Cruikshank, “Report on Developments in Social Insurance,” Executive Council Reports, 30 July 1948, Florence Thorne Files, SHSW.

37. Nelson Cruikshank, “Issues in Social Security”; W. Rulon Williamson to Walter Reuther, 27 July 1945, George Addes Papers, WPRL; John Edelman, “Your TWUA Memo from Washington,” 10 October 1947, TWUA Papers, SHSW; AFL Committee for Social Security Bulletin #8, “Hospitalization Insurance,” 1943, Pamphlet File, George Meany Archives; Executive Council Minutes (AFL), 1 October 1946, Files of the Office of the President, AFL Papers, SHSW; S. Stetin to I. Katz, 23 October 1946, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Goldmann, Franz, “Labor's Attitude Toward Health Insurance,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 2 (1948): 90–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

38. “CIO Pension Gains Mean Victory for All,” emphasis added.

39. “Memorandum on NHI Act, 1947 (S. 1320),” AFL Legislative Files, George Meany Archives; Memorandum from S. Barkin to E. Rieve, 2 December 1949, TWUA Papers, SHSW; “The Two-Way Drive for Social Security,” Economic Outlook 9(12).

40. “Economic Program for 1949,” UAW Convention Proceedings (Detroit, 1949).Google Scholar

41. New York Times, 2 December 1949.

42. C. Huhndorff to Executive Council, 18 July 1949, IAM Papers, SHSW. The AFL's expert on social welfare also expressed an awareness of this problem. See N. Cruikshank to Wm. Green, “Draft of Executive Council Report on Developments in Social Security,” 20 July 1950.

43. Resolution #15, “Old Age, Survivors and Disability Insurance and Public Assistance,” Report of the Resolutions Committee, 11th Constitutional Convention of CIO, Cleveland, 31 October to 4 November 1949, Murray Papers, Catholic University; E. Rieve, Testimony to Senate Finance Committee, 27 February 1950, KPE Papers, WPRL.

44. G. Addes, “Statement Before Senate Committee on Labor,” 8.

45. Gross, James A., The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board: National Labor Policy in Transition 1937–1947 (Albany, N.Y., 1981)Google Scholar; Brody, David, Workers in Industrial America (New York, 1980).Google Scholar Some in fact argue that the desire to block the unionization of supervisory personnel was one of the main spurs to the Taft-Hartley Act. See Harris, The Right to Manage; Lichtenstein, Labor's War; Seidman, American Labor; and Tomlins, The State and the Unions.

46. Brody, Workers in Industrial America.

47. Minutes of the CIO Research Directors Meeting, 2 March 1945, KPE Papers, WPRL; Matthew Woll to Joint Committee on the Economic Report, 8 July 1947, Florence Thome Files, SHSW; Bernstein, Barton, “The Truman Administration and Its Reconversion Wage Policy,” Labor History 6 (1965): 214–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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49. Memorandum by Philip Murray, “Labor and the Postwar World,” 27 July 1944, KPE Papers, WPRL; CIO, Economic Outlook, vol. 6 (1945) (all issues); E. Rieve to All Staff, 9 January 1946, TWUA Papers, SHSW; Lichtenstein, Labor's War; Bernstein, “The Truman Administration.”

50. Gross, The Reshaping of the National Labor Relations Board; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; C. Huhndorff to All IAM Representatives Attending Vice-President Walter's Staff Conference, 29 October 1946, IAM Papers, SHSW.

51. Lee Pressman, Current Legal Reports #46 and 48, 1 December 1946 and 1 February 1947, Philip Murray Papers, Catholic University Archives; International Typographical Union (ITU), Monthly Bulletin 49 (1947): 14Google Scholar; Report of the President, Submitted to the 12th Convention of the UAW, Milwaukee, 10 July 1948, WPRL; The Labor Trend, 19 August 1947; Brown, “The NLRB”; Confidential Memorandum from Matthew Woll, “Experience of A.F. of L. Unions Under the Taft-Hartley Act,” 8 December 1952, IAM Papers, SHSW.

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54. Donna Allen, Fringe Benefits: Wages or Social Obligation? (New York, 1969); Nathaniel Minkoff, “Trade Union Welfare Programs,” in BLS, Union Health and Welfare Plans, 1947, Bulletin 900 (Washington, D.C., 1948). Ironically, by the 1960s, fringe benefits might have lead to the decline of unionization. See Cornfield, Daniel, “Declining Union Membership in the Post–World War II Era: The United Furniture Workers of America, 1939–1982,” American Journal of Sociology 91 (1986): 1112–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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60. Inland Steel Company v. United Steelworkers of America (CIO), 77 NLRB 4 (1948). The NLRB was upheld in 1949 by the U.S. Supreme Court, see “Inland Steel Company v. NLRB et al., C.A. 7th Cir. Certiorari denied.”

61. Colston Warne, “Industrial Relations in Coal,” 367–86, in Warne, Labor in Postwar America; Slavick, “The Provision of Disability.”

62. The Steel Industry Board, Report to the President of the United States on the Labor Dispute in the Basic Steel Industry (Washington, D.C., 1949); quotation from the report was cited by Dearing, Industrial Pensions, 61.Google Scholar

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64. “Labor ‘Aids’ Asked By Schwellenbach,” New York Times, 17 June 1947; “Summary of Discussion of Union-Management Welfare Plans and Their Relationship to Social Security at a Meeting Between Members of the Social Security Administration Staff and Region 4 Commissioners of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service,” 10 November 1949, Edwin Witte Papers, SHSW.

65. NLRB, Legislative History, 800.

66. NLRB, Legislative History, 1050.

67. Dearing, Industrial Pensions, 60, 61.

68. NLRB, Legislative History, 313.

69. Brody, Workers in Industrial America, 174.

70. NLRB, Legislative History, 798, 800, 369.

71. Quoted in Dearing, Industrial Pensions, 63.

72. Minutes of the CIO Executive Board, 16 May 1947, WPRL; Frank DeVyver, “Collective Bargaining in Steel,” 387–98, in Warne, Labor in Postwar America; Robert K. Burns, “Industrial Relations in Printing,” 419–28, in Warne, Labor in Postwar America; Colston E. Warne, “Industrial Relations in Coal,” 367–86, in Warne, Labor in Postwar America.

73. Arthur Goldberg to Philip Murray, 13 April 1948, Murray Papers, Catholic University Archives.