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Nixon's Southern Strategy Revisited

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2011

Dean J. Kotlowski
Dean J. Kotlowski
Affiliation:
Indiana University
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Extract

Recently, the story of President Richard M. Nixon's “southern strategy” and its relationship to school desegregation has become a ripe topic for historical revision. Ever wary of the shifty-eyed Nixon, contemporary critics argued that the president had retreated from civil rights to win the votes of conservative white southerners. Modifying this thesis, recent scholars have concluded that the president was neither a segregationist nor a conservative on the race question. These writers have shown that Nixon desegregated more schools than previous presidents, approved a strengthened Voting Rights Act, developed policies to aid minority businesses, and supported affirmative action.

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Articles
Information
Journal of Policy History , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , April 1998 , pp. 207 - 238
Copyright
Copyright © The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA. 1998

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References

Notes

1. See Evans, Rowland Jr. and Novak, Robert D., Nixon in the White House: The Frustration of Power (New York, 1971), 133–64Google Scholar; Schell, Jonathan, The Time of Illusion (New York, 1975), 40–49Google Scholar, 77–84; Panetta, Leon E. and Gall, Peter, “Bring Us Together”: The Nixon Team and trie Civil Rights Retreat (Philadelphia, 1971)Google Scholar; Phillips, Kevin P., The Emerging Republican Majority (New Rochelle, N.Y., 1969)Google Scholar. For skeptical views of the importance of southern politics to the making of Nixon's civil rights policy, see “Mr. Nixon and the South,” Wall Street Journal, 3 September 1969, 14; “‘Strategy’ Myth Belied,” Portland Oregonian, 8 April 1970, Folder: School Desegregation, Box 111, Charles W. Colson Files, White House Special Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Materials, National Archives, College Park, Maryland; Murphy, Reg and Gulliver, Hal, The Southern Strategy (New York, 1971), 3.Google Scholar

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10. Rieder, Jonathan, “The Rise of the ‘Silent Majority,’” in The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980, ed. Fraser, Steve and Gerstle, Gary (Princeton, 1989), 243–68Google Scholar. For studies and accounts that de-emphasize Nixon's appeals to the South (especially the deep South), see Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 79; Graham, Civil Rights Era, 303; Nixon's campaign manager in 1968, John N. Mitchell Interview with A. James Reichley, 18 September 1969, p. 3, Box 2, A. James Reichley Interview Transcripts, Gerald R. Ford Library, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

11. Richard M. Nixon Handwritten Notes, 8 July 1968, Richard M. Nixon Collection, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University, Stanford, California; “Nixon Scores U.S. Method of Enforcing Integration,” New York Times, 13 September 1968, 1, 50; “Republican Nominee Richard Nixon Interviewed on CBS' ‘Face the Nation,’” 27 October 1968, Audio Recording, Buffalo and Erie County Public Library, Buffalo, New York.

12. Scammon, Richard M. and Wattenberg, Ben J., The Real Majority (New York, 1970), 200–211Google Scholar; LaRue, Frederick C. quoted in Nixon: An Oral History of His Presidency, ed. Strober, Gerald S. and Strober, Deborah Hart (New York, 1994), 24.Google Scholar

13. Watson, Richard A., The Presidential Contest (New York, 1984), 86Google Scholar; White, The Making of the President 1968, 545–47.

14. Memorandum, Fred LaRue to Bryce Harlow, 18 February 1969, Folder: CF HU 2–1 [Education-Schooling] 1/20/69–2/28/70, Box 35, Confidential Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

15. Haldeman, H. R. Meeting Notes, 8 August 1970, Papers of the Nixon White House, Part 5: H.R. Haldeman Notes of White House Meetings, 1969–73, ed. Hoff-Wilson, Joan (Lanham, Md.:, 1989)Google Scholar, Fiche 30 (hereafter PNWH).

16. Nixon Handwritten Comments on Undated News Summary, March 1969, PNWH Part 6, Series B: Annotated News Summaries, Fiche 3. See also Memo, Alexander Butterfield to John D. Ehrlichman, 27 March 1969, Folder: 1969 Southern GOP 3, Box 8, Harry S. Dent Jr. Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials and Memo, Ehrlichman to Richard M. Nixon, 17 April 1969, PNWH Part 6, Series A: Documents Annotated fry the President, Fiche 13.

17. Memo, Nixon to Ehrlichman, 16 January 1969, Folder: Memos—January 1969 [2 of 2], Box 1, President's Personal File, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

18. Letter, Strom Thurmond to Nixon, 29 January 1969, Memo, Harlow to H. R. Haldeman, 31 January 1969, Memo, Harry Dent to Ehrlichman, and Memo, Haldeman to Dent, 6 February 1969—all in Folder: Memoranda—February 1969, Box 49, H.R. Haldeman Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; “Strom's Man Moves In: The Wheeler-Dealer in Residence Is Dent, A Southern Strategist,” Columbia (S.C.) Record, 29 July 1969, Folder: Republican Personnel—Dent Harry—March-July 1969, Box 204, Republican National Committee Series, Rogers C. B. Morton Papers, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

19. Memo, Dent to Nixon through Ehrlichman and Haldeman, 3 February 1969, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 7; On southern appointments, see Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 30 December 1969, Folder: Memos—December 1969, Box 1, President's Personal File, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Haldeman to Harlow and Dent, 13 February 1969, Folder: Memoranda—February 1969, Box 49, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

20. Kotlowski, Dean J., “Trial By Error: Nixon, the Senate, and the Haynsworth Nomination,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996): 71–91Google Scholar; Press Release, “George Harrold Carswell Nominated Associate Justice, United States Supreme Court,” 19 January 1970, Folder: Ex 51/A, Box 4, FG 5 1/A—Federal Government—Supreme Court of the United States, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Greene, The Limits of Power, 40–41.

21. Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 22 September 1969, Folder: P Memos 1969, Box 229, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

22. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Dent to Nixon, 30 April 1969, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 15; Memo, Dent to Southern Chairman Plus Attached Article, 15 July 1969, Folder: 1969 Southern GOP 1, Box 8, Dent Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; “Agnew Aiding GOP Strategy in South,” Montgomery Advertiser, 9 November 1969, 12A; “Nixon's Answer to Wallace,” Richmond News-Leader, 14 November 1969, 18; “G.O.P. Aided by Agnew Surges in South,” New York Times, 7 December 1969, 1, 60.

23. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Raymond K. Price to Nixon, 16 January 1970, Folder: P Memos 1970, Box 229, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. 24. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Dent to Nixon, 8 December 1969, PNWH, 6.A, Fiche 49; Memo, John Brown to Dent, 11 December 1969, Folder: Memos to the President 1969 (#1), Box 2, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

25. Memo, Dent to Nixon, 11 December 1969, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 51.

26. Memo, Colson to Haldeman, 22 December 1970, Folder: HRH Memos [1969–1970] [1 of 3], Box 1, Colson Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memorandum for the President's File, 26 July 1971, Folder: Colson Chronological Files, July 1971, Box 129, Colson Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Colson to Haldeman, 18 September 1972, Folder: Charles Colson September 1972, Box 102, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Charles W. Colson Exit Interview with Jack Nesbitt and Susan Yowell, 12 January 1973, 16–19, Nixon Presidential Materials.

27. Memo, Nixon to Haldeman and Ehrlichman, 18 January 1971, Folder: Memos—January 1971, Box 3, President's Personal File, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 31 January 1972, Folder: P Memos 1972, Box 230, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

28. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Daniel P. Moynihan to Nixon, PNWH,6.A, Fiche 60.

29. John D. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 4 August 1970, PNWH, Part 3: John D. Ehrlichman Notes of Meetings with the President, Fiche 17.

30. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 11 July 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 69.

31. Diary, H. R. Haldeman, 15 April 1971, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House, ed. Haldeman, H. R. (Santa Monica, Calif., 1994)Google Scholar, CD-ROM.

32. Haldeman Diary, 17 and 29 January 1971; “Nixon Seeking a New Image,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 21 March 1971, B-3; Ehrlichman, John, Witness to Power: The Nixon Years (New York, 1982), 235–36.Google Scholar

33. African Americans within the administration felt that their advice was not solicited on political matters. See Memorandum, “The Black Vote in 1972,” 29 September 1971, Folder: [CF] PL [Political Affairs] 1/1/71–8/31/71 [1971–741, Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

34. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Dent to Nixon, 3 February 1969, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 7.

35. “Southern Aide to Nixon: Harry Shuler Dent,” New York Times, 29 February 1969, 29; “If It's GOP Politics, See Harry Dent,” Memphis Press-Scimitar, 12 November 1969, 4; Memo, Haldeman to Dent and Harlow, 13 February 1969, Folder: Memoranda—February 1969, Box 49, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to Mitchell, 7 July 1969, Folder: Southern G.O.P. 1, Box 8, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to Dwight Chapin and Ehrlichman, 13 August 1969, Folder: Republican Personnel—Dent Harry—August-December 1969, Box 204, RNC Series, Morton Papers; Memo, Haldeman to Dent, 23 February 1971, Folder: Harry Dent—February 1971, Box 73, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. On the advisers who handled Nixon's domestic policy, see Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 15–144.

36. Memo, Dent to Moynihan, 15 July 1969, Folder: 1969 Staff Memos #3, Box 2, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

37. Memo, Nixon to Ehrlichman, 22 September 1969, Folder: President Nixon—Memoranda (September 1969), Box 228, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

38. Memo, Haldeman to Ehrlichman, 18 January 1971, Folder: Presidential Memos—1971—Ehrlichman, Box 84, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Hullin to Staff Secretary, 25 August 1971, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [1 July-31 August 1971], Box 57, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

39. Memo, Dent to Nixon, 23 January 1969, Folder: 1969 School Compliance File— January-April [3 of 3], Box 7, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to John N. Mitchell, 19 February 1969, and Memo, Dent to Nixon, 5 March 1969—both in Folder: 1969 Southern GOP 3, Box 8, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to Nixon, 18 March 1969, Folder: Memos to the President 1969 [#3[, Box 2, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to Nixon, 9 April 1969, Folder: CF HU 2–1 [Education—Schooling] 1/20/69–2/28/70, Box 35, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memo, Dent to Nixon, 4 June 1971, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling-Executive, Box 9, HU—Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Memos, Dent to Haldeman, 21 July 1971 and Colson to Larry Higby, 24 July 1971-both in Folder: Charles Colson 1971 [1 of 2], Box 81, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

40. Memo, John Campbell to Edward Morgan (plus attachment), 22 July 1971, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling—Executive, Box 9, HU—Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; In one interview, Dent unwittingly conceded the limits of his influence. Harry Dent Interview with A. James Reichley, 3 April 1978, Box 1, Reichley Interview Transcripts, Ford Library.

41. Phillips, Emerging Republican Majority, 461–74.

42. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 8 January 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 14.

43. News Clipping, “Justice Department Aide Will Become a Columnist,” No Date, Folder: Republican Personnel—President's Cabinet—Mitchell—John—N., Box 26, RNC Series, Morton Papers.

44. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Kevin Phillips Column, 25 September 1970, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 97; Memo, Brown to Ehrlichman, 12 October 1970, Action Memo P839, Box 42, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

45. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 8 January 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 14.

46. Nixon Handwritten Comments on Memo, Ehrlichman to Nixon, 21 October 1970, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 101.

47. Memo, Patrick J. Buchanan to Committee of Six, 3 February 1971, Folder: Patrick Buchanan—February 1971, Box 73, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

48. Memo, Harlow to Arthur F. Burns, 24 March 1969, Folder: White House Staff Memoranda 24–29 March 1969, Box A33, Arthur F. Burns Papers, Gerald R. Ford Library.

49. “James J. Kilpatrick,” President's News Summary, 13 February 1969, PNWH, 6:B, Fiche 2; David S. Broder, “‘Newest’ Nixon Worries Conservatives,” Detroit News, 24 January 1971, 3-E.

50. “American Dream or Republican Nightmare?” and “The Nixon Plan: Solution or Socialism,” The Republican Battle Line (August 1969), Folder: Presidential/President Nixon, Box 184, RNC Series, Morton Papers.

51. Haldeman Diary, 21 February 1969.

52. Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 18 May 1971, Folder: Patrick J. Buchanan—May 1971, Box 78, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

53. Gerald R. Ford quoted in Nixon, ed. Strober and Strober, 114.

54. Sallyanne Payton Interview with author, 27 July 1994, Ann Arbor, Michigan. For a similar view, see Stephen Bull quoted in Nixon, ed. Strober and Strober, 77–78.

55. While some of Nixon's harshest critics will question this statement, there is evidence that he considered the issue of dependency on welfare to be important. Moynihan's memoranda on the subject would not have captured Nixon's attention otherwise. See Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 115–44; “Nixon Gives Views on Aid to Negroes and the Poor,” New York Times, 20 December 1967, p. 22; “Nixon on Racial Accommodation,” Time, May 3, 1968, 21; Payton Interview with author, 27 July 1994; Former Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Chair William H. Brown III Telephone Interview with author, 15 September 1994; Leonard Garment Interview with A. James Reichley, 19 October 1977, p. 3, Box 1, Reichley Interview Transcripts.

56. “The Administration's Strategy: A Sharpening of Lines,” Los Angeles Times, 24 November 1969, pt. II, p. 7; Wilson, Richard, “Nixon and Integration: Consolidating a Majority,” Detroit News, 11 March 1970, 15B.Google Scholar

57. “The President's News Conference of September 26, 1969,” Public Papers of the Presidents: Richard M. Nixon (1969) (Washington, D.C., 1971), 750.Google Scholar

58. Memo, Ehrlichman to Robert J. Brown et al, 1 October 1969, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [17 July-22 October 1969] [4 of 5], Box 51, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

59. Haldeman Diary, 28 April 1969; The Haldeman diaries contain additional negative remarks from Nixon about African Americans. See “National Report: Haldeman Diaries Reveal Nixon Fed Up with Blacks During His White House Tenure,” let, 13 June 1994, 12.

60. Haldeman Diary, 7 October 1971.

61. Fact Sheet, “Richard M. Nixon's Public Record on Civil Rights Measures,” n.d., Folder: Jackie Robinson, Box 649, General Correspondence, Richard M. Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region, Laguna Niguel, California. On Nixon's support of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, see Letter, Nixon to Roy Wilkins, 10 May 1957, Memo, Robert H. Finch to “AW,” 3 February 1960, and “Wilkins Praises Nixon on Rights,” New York Times, 21 June 1960—all in Folder: Roy Wilkins, Box 820, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region; “News Conference Excerpts/Richard M. Nixon,” 15 February 1960, Papers of the Republican Party, Part II, Reel 2; On the Civil Rights Act of 1964, see “Back Rights Bill, Nixon Urges G.O.P.,” New York Times, 16 June 1964, p. 22; On the Voting Rights Act, see “Senate's Leaders Seek Voting Bill,” New York Times, March 11, 1965, 19, and “Be Firm on Rights, Nixon Urges Party,” New York Times, 14 March 1965, 67; On the Fair Housing Act of 1968, see Letter, Clarence Mitchell to Nixon, 22 March 1968, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 44, Robert T. Hartmann Papers, Ford Library and “House G.O.P. Eases Rights Bill Stand,” New York Times, 21 March 1968, 28.

62. Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 78; Wilz, Democracy Challenged, 444.

63. Letter, Dwight D. Eisenhower to Nixon, 15 August 1953, PPS 307.6 and Martin Luther King Jr. inscription in Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story, Book 297, Richard Nixon's Den—both in Richard M. Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace, Yorba Linda, California.

64. “Text of Nixon's Address to the Republican Club Dinner Here,” New York Times, 14 February 1956, 18; Associated Press Story, 24 September 1957, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 153, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region.

65. Letter, Nixon to Alfred Duckett, 20 June 1962, Folder: Jackie Robinson, Box 649, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region.

66. “Nixon Brands Rockefeller a Party ‘Divider’ as GOP Quarrels over Defeat,” New York Times, 6 November 1964, 25; “Nixon Asks G.O.P. to Unite in South,” New York Times, 30 September 1966, 37.

67. Raymond Price and H. R. Haldeman quoted in Nixon, ed. Strober and Strober, 113. Scholars who have accepted this argument include Stephen E. Ambrose, “Remarks Before a High School Colloquium,” in Richard M. Nixon, ed. Friedman and Levantrosser, 40; Aiken, Jonathan, Nixon: A Life (Washington, D.C., 1994), 72.Google Scholar

68. All quotations come from Letter, Nixon to Leonard Clark, 22 July 1960, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 153, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region.

69. “Nixon Terms Bias a Curb on Science,” New York Times, 17 October 1957, 6.

70. Richard M. Nixon, “Report to the President on Trip to Africa,” 5 April 1957, Folder: Nixon, Richard M. 1953–1957, Box 28, Administrative Series, Ann Whitman File, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.

71. Letter, Nixon to Clark, 22 July 1960, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 153, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region.

72. Letter, Nixon to Lt. Lewis C. Olive Jr., 20 July 1956, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 153, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archives—Pacific Southwest Region. On Nixon's professed commitment to limited government, see Letter, Nixon to Mrs. John R. Canning, 10 February 1957, Folder: Civil Rights, Box 153, General Correspondence, Nixon Pre-Presidential Papers, National Archive—Pacific Southwest Region; Letter, Nixon to George W. Romney, 31 October 1960, Folder: Kennedy-Nixon Letter—Election of 1960, Box 15, George W. Romney Papers—Early Series, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Letter, Nixon to Arthur E. Summerfield, 23 June 1971, Folder: HU 2–1 Education-Schooling States and Territories—Executive 1/1/71–12/31/72, Box 13, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

73. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Ehrlichman to Nixon, 18 July 1970, PNWH, 6:A, Fiche 85. On Nixon's duplicity, see Jamieson, Kathleen Hall, Packaging the Presidency: A History and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising (New York, 1992), 256.Google Scholar

74. Memo, Haldeman to Nixon, 4 August 1970, Folder: Haldeman Memos to the President 1970, Box 138, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

75. “White House Pattern Seen in Desegregation,” Los Angeles Times, 3 December 1969, pt 1-A, p. 2.

76. See Lawson, Steven F., “Mixing Moderation with Militancy,” in The Johnson Years: LBJ at Home and Abroad, vol. 3, ed. Divine, Robert A. (Lawrence, Kan., 1994), 82–83.Google Scholar

77. Hoff, Nixon Reconsidered, 84.

78. Notes on Civil Rights Meeting, 14 April 1969, Folder: National Strategy Guidelines, Drawer: Civil Rights—HEW, Private Papers of Robert H. Finch Papers, Pasadena, California (courtesy storage at Occidental College Library and Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace).

79. Memorandum on Meeting with Attorney General John N. Mitchell, 18 February 1969, Folder: Justice Department 1969, Box D61, Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR) Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

80. “Relax Ouidelines—HEW Counsel,” Charlotte Observer, 23 March 1969, 9A; “Wilkins Warns of Peril to School Guidelines,” Washington Star, 21 June 1969, 2; Jerris Leonard Interview with A. James Reichley, 31 October 1977, Box 2, Reichley Interview Transcripts.

81. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Ehrlichman to Nixon, 17 April 1969, PNWH, Part 7: The President's Personal Files, Fiche 153.

82. Nixon Handwritten Comment on News Summary, 10 July 1969, PNWH, 6:B, Fiche 11; Memo, Hullin to Staff Secretary, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling— Executive 7/1/69–12/31/69, Box 8, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

83. Memo, Ehrlichman to James Keogh, 26 June 1969, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [27 November 1968–16 July 1969] [5 of 5], Box 50, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

84. Haldeman Diary, 15 February 1969.

85. Nixon Handwritten Comment on News Summary, March 1969, PNWH, 6:B, Fiche 3.

86. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 17 February 1969, PNWH: 5, Fiche 2.

87. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 26 March 1969, PNWH: 5, Fiche 2.

88. Memo, Haldeman to Ehrlichman, 12 May 1969, Folder: Memos—John Ehrlichman (May 1969), Box 50, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

89. John D. Ehrlichman, Memorandum of Meeting Between the President and Secretary Robert H. Finch, 15 May 1969, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [27 November 1968–16 July 1969] [4 of 5], Box 50, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

90. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 6 June 1969, PNWH: 5, Fiche 5.

91. Handwritten Notes—John N. Mitchell on 3 July 1969 Statement, No Date, Drawer: Civil Rights—HEW, Finch Private Papers.

92. Press Release, “School Desegregation Statement by the Department of Justice and Department of Health, Education and Welfare,” 3 July 1969, Folder: 1969 Southern GOP 1, Box 8, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materiris.

93. Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, for example, wanted “clear, unequivocal statement of policy that HEW will enforce the law” and HEW should “keep the 1969 deadline.” “Proposed Outline of Discussion with Secretary Robert H. Finch,” n.d., Folder: Finch's First School Decision 1968–69, Box E15, LCCR Papers.

94. “Wilkins Blasts School Desegregation Decision,” Los Angeles Times, 4 July, 1969, pt. I, p. 18.

95. Memo, Dent to Nixon, 8 July 1969, Folder: Memos to the President—1969 [#3], Box 2, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

96. “Thurmond Is Right to Be Cautious in Applauding Desegregation Policy,” Washington Post, 9 July 1969, 19.

97. “U.S. Files School Suits in North, South,” Washington Star, 8 July 1969, 3; “U.S. Steps Up Drive to Integrate Schools,” Los Angeles Times, 9 July 1969, pt. I, 14; “Nixon Vows to Shift to School Suits,” New York Times, 11 July 1969, 1, 23.

98. “Federal Fund Cutoffs Ordered for 3 Southern Districts,” Los Angeles Times, 8 July 1969, 1; “Nixon and Desegregation: Deeds Belie Words,” Detroit News, 14 July 1969, 16-A; “Third of South's Negroes Due in Integrated Schools,” Baltimore Sun, 20 August 1969, 1; “Dixie School Pace Surprises HEW,” Washington Post, 24 August 1969, 2; “Desegregated Schools for Va. Negroes Double in Year,” Washington Post, 23 August 1969, p. Bl; “Nixon's Strategy for Schools Set,” New York Times, 17 September 1969, 18; “Nixon School Integration Aims—Retreat or Progress?” Detroit News, 28 September 1969, 13-B; “Rights Chief Defends Position: Strong Integration Push Pledged,” Washington News, 8 October 1969, 20.

99. “Dixie Moderates Pleased: Nixon School Policies Anger Deep South,” Washington News, 4 September 1969, 14.

100. Constituent Letter to Morton, 21 March 1970, Folder: Civil Rights/Minorities McCarthy-White, Box 219, RNC Series, Morton Papers. For similar letters, see Mrs. Paul Swafford to Nixon, 4 September 1969, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling—General 8/1/69–9/30/69, Box 11, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Thomas A. Crouch to Nixon, 1 October 1969, Folder: HU-2 Equality—General 10/1/69–10/31/69, Box 6, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Mrs. Wayne W. Fox to Morton, 30 January 1970, Folder: Civil/Minorities—Atthouse—Lund, Box 219, RNC Series, Morton Papers.

101. Memo, Dent to Nixon, 26 June 1969, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling States and Territories—Executive—Beginning-12/31/70, Box 13, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Reichley, A. James, Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (Washington, D.C., 1981), 92–94Google Scholar; On two separate occasions, Nixon gave in to pressure from Stennis. See Memo, Harlow to Staff Secretary, 14 July 1969, PNWH, Part 2: The President's Meeting File, 1969–1974, Fiche 69–6–22 and Memo, Harlow to Staff Secretary, 25 August 1969, PNWH: 2, Fiche 69–7–20.

102. Reichley, Conservatives in an Age of Change, 9.

103. “Finch Asks Time for School Plan,” Washington Post, 21 August 1969, 28.

104. Metcalf, George R., From Little Rock to Boston: The History of School Desegregation (Westport, Conn. 1983), 41–49Google Scholar; Wilkinson, J. Harvie, From Brown to Bakke: The Supreme Court and School Desegregation, 1954–1978 (New York, 1979), 118–27Google Scholar; Congressional Quarterly, Nixon: The First Year of His Presidency (Washington, D.C., 1970), 49–50.Google Scholar

105. Wicker, One of Us, 505.

106. Haldeman Diary, October 1970.

107. Handwritten Notes on Finch Conversation with Nixon, 14 April 1969, Folder: Parris Island, South Carolina, 25 and 26 April 1969, Drawer: Civil Rights—HEW, Finch Private Papers.

108. “Nixon Vows to Enforce Edict on Desegregation,” New York Times, 31 October 1969, 1.

109. Memo, Morgan to Ken Cole, 28 January 1970, Folder: CF HU 2–1 [Education—Schooling] 1/20/69–2/28/70, Box 35, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

110. Memo, Buchanan to Nixon, 12 February 1970, Folder: February 1970, Box 35, Staff Secretary—Courier Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

111. Memo, Harlow to Staff Secretary, 13 February 1970, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling States and Territories—Executive—Beginning-12/31/70, Box 13, HUHuman Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

112. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 19 February 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 16; Haldeman Diary, 19 February 1970.

113. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 4 August 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 17; Haldeman Meeting Notes, 4 August 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 28.

114. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 19 March 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 13.

115. Haldeman Diary, 20 February 1970; Later, Nixon reminded aides to “play [the] center strategy right down the middle.” Haldeman Meeting Notes, 3 June 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 24.

116. Nixon Handwritten Comment on News Summary, 19 January 1970, PNWH, 6:B, Fiche 22.

117. Memo, Haldeman to Nixon, 4 August 1970, Folder: Memos to the President 1970, Box 138, Haldeman Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

118. “Nixon Declares Schools Neutral,” Baltimore Sun, 25 March 1970, 9; “Title of Message Reflects Its Tone,” Washington Star, 24 March 1970, 1. See also A. James Reichley Interviews with Leonard Garment (19 October 1977), Bryce Harlow (3 November 1977), and Ray Price (2 March 1978), Box 1, Reichley Interview Transcripts.

119. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 19 March 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 13.

120. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 4 August 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 28.

121. Haldeman Diary, 20 February 1970.

122. Memo, Hullin to Brown, 24 February 1970, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [2 February 1970–20 April 1970] (2 of 4), Box 52, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

123. Memo, Ehrlichman to Cole, 3 March 1970, Folder: Ehrlichman Chronological File [2 February 1970–20 April 1970] [2 of 4], Box 52, Ehrlichman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

124. Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Henry A. Kissinger, 2 March 1970, Folder: P Memos 1970, Box 229, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

125. Memo, Dent to Harlow, 14 May 1970, Folder: 1970 Harlow, Box 3, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

126. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 4 February 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 15; “Ousted Civil-Rights Official Lashes Out at White House Aides,” Seattle Times, 1 March 1970, A-20 and Letter, G. Paul Jones to Dent, 7 May 1969, Folder: 1969 School Compliance File—May—December [3 of 3], Box 7, Dent Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

127. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 27 February 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 17.

128. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 13 August 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 18.

129. Price quoted in Nixon, ed. Strober and Strober, 113.

130. Memo, Leon E. Panetta to Finch, n.d., Memo, Leonard Garment to Cole, 26 January 1970, Memo, Morgan to Cole (plus attached meeting notes), 28 January 1970, Memorandum for Kenneth R. Cole, Jr., 23 January 1970—all in Folder: CF HU 2–1 [Education—Schooling] 1/20/69–2/28/70, Box 35, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

131. Greene, Limits of Power, 46; Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America, 603; George Shultz Interview with A. James Reichley, 4 January 1978, Box 2, Reichley Interview Transcripts; Ehrlichman, Witness to Power, 228–29; Safire, Before the Fall, 233; Price, With Nixon, 206–8.

132. Shultz, George P., Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York, 1993), 1046.Google Scholar

133. Memoranda, Robert C. Mardian to Spiro T. Agnew, 19 May 1970, Mardian to Agnew, 5 June 1970, L. Patrick Gray III to Cabinet Committee on Education, 19 June 1970, Mardian to Agnew, 6 July 1970, Mardian to Shultz, 22 July 1970—all in Folder: Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, Box 3, George W. Romney Post-Gubernatorial Papers, Bentley Historical Library.

134. Richard C. Van Dusen Notes of Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation Meeting, 7 April 1970, Folder: Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, Box 31, Staff Correspondence Files, Richard C. Van Dusen Files, General Records of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Record Group 207, National Archives; Memo, James Clawson to Mardian, 24 July 1970, Folder: North Carolina State Advisory Committee, Box 11, Robert C. Mardian Papers, Hoover Institution.

135. Price, With Nixon, 209.

136. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 8 August 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 28.

137. Memo, Harlow to Staff Secretary, 20 August 1970, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling—Executive 8/1/70–8/31/70, Box 9, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

138. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 28 July 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 17.

139. Memo, Haldeman to Ehrlichman, 29 June 1970, Folder: HRH Staff Memos—May/June 1970, Box 60, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

140. Memo, Gray to Cabinet Committee on Education, 29 June 1970, Folder: Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, Box 3, Romney Post-Gubernatorial Papers.

141. Constituent Letter to Gerald R. Ford, 21 July 1970, Folder: B163–13, Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers, Ford Library.

142. Memo, Jerry Poole to Elliot Richardson, 14 August 1970, Folder: Congressional Liaison Reports—1970, Box 3, Health, Education, and Welfare Department Series, Creed C. Black Papers, University of Kentucky.

143. Memo, Dent to Nixon, 6 August 1970, Folder: [CF] PL—Political Affairs—5/1/ 69 to 12/31/70 [1969–70], Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

144. Memo, Moynihan to Members of the Cabinet Committee on Education, 23 July 1970, Folder: Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, Box 3, Romney Post-Gubernatorial Papers.

145. Ehrlichman Meeting Notes, 13 August 1970, PNWH: 3, Fiche 18.

146. Memoranda, Hugh Sloan to Ehrlichman, 22 June 1970; Sloan to Nixon, 25 June 1970; Haldeman to Dent, 7 July 1970; and Dent to Nixon, 6 August 1970—all in Folder: [CF] PL Political Affairs 5/1/69 to 12/31/70 [1969–70], Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Haldeman Meeting Notes, 22 July 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 28.

147. Memo, Moynihan to Members of the Cabinet Committee on Education, 23 July 1970, Folder: Cabinet Committee on School Desegregation, Box 3, Romney Post-Gubernatorial Papers; Haldeman Diary, 14 August 1970; Safire, Before the Fall, 242; Nixon, Memoirs, 442–43; Price, With Nixon, 209; Dent, Prodigal South Returns to Power, 151–52, 188–94.

148. Memo, Kilberg to Cole, 19 November 1970, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling—Executive 9/1/70–12/31/70, Box 9, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

149. Leonard Interview, 31 October 1977, Box 2, Reichley Interview Transcripts; U.S. Civil Rights Commission quoted in Samuels, Joseph M., “Busing, Reading, and Self in New Haven,” Integrated Education, 10 (November-December 1972): 28.Google Scholar

150. Memo, Kilberg to Cole, 19 November 1970, Folder: HU 2–1 Education—Schooling—Executive 9/1/70–12/31/70, Box 9, HU-Human Rights, Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

151. Rilling, Paul M., “Have Time and Reality Overtaken the Southern Strategy?” Interplay 3 (August 1970): 34–38.Google Scholar

152. Members of the administration engaged in considerable self-congratulation after the fact, a good deal of it deserved. Both Mitchell and HEW Secretary Elliot Richardson, Finch's successor, found the work of the cabinet committee and state advisory committees to be enormously successful. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Mitchell and Richardson, 6 August 1970, Box 127, Elliot L. Richardson Papers, Library of Congress.

153. Thurmond Oral History, 1 February 1974, 15, SOHP.

154. Maurice H. Stans quoted in Nixon, ed. Strober and Strober, 112.

155. Memo, Larry A. Jobe to Maurice H. Stans, 2 June 1971, Folder: Minority Business Enterprise Office of January-September 1971, Box 67, Commerce Department Files, Maurice H. Stans Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul.

156. Letter, Thurmond to Stans, 25 August 1970, Folder: Small Business Administration (June-December), Box 20, Commerce Department Files, Stans Papers.

157. “Nixon Cheered in South; Assails North on Race,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 26 May 1971, 6A; Haldeman Diary, 25 May 1971.

158. Memo, Jon M. Huntsman to Dent, 22 June 1971, Action Memo #P-1759, Box 48, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Matetials.

159. Memo, Jobe to Stans, 2 June 1971, Folder: Minority Business Enterprise Office of January-September 1971, Box 67, Commerce Department Files, Stans Papers; Letter, Stans to Thurmond, 23 September 1970, Folder: Small Business Administration (June-December), Box 20, Commerce Department Files, Stans Papers.

160. Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 12 November 1971, Folder: P Memos 1971, Box 230, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

161. “72 Democratic Hopes Brighten in South,” Detroit News, 30 August 1971, 6-B.

162. Murphy and Gulliver, Southern Strategy, 228–29.

163. Memo, Winton M. Blount to Nixon, 17 November 1970, Folder: [CF] PL Political Affairs 5/1/69–12/21/70 [1969–70], Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

164. Memo, Robert Marik to Cole and Ed Harper through Jeb S. Magruder, 21 October 1971, Folder: [CF] PL Political Affairs 9/1/71–4/30/72 [1971–74], Box 46, Confidential Files, Special Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Nixon, Memoirs, 542.

165. Memo, Huntsman to Dent, 25 May 1971, Folder: Presidential Memos 1971, Box 83, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

166. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 25 November 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 37.

167. Haldeman Meeting Notes, 7 May 1970, PNWH: 5, Fiche 23.

168. Carter, George Wallace, Richard Nixon, 41–43; Lesher, Stephan, George Wallace: American Populist (Reading, Mass., 1994), 442.Google Scholar

169. Carter, George Wallace, Richard Nixon, 42–43; Haldeman Diary, 28 April 1972; William E. Timmons to Nixon, 22 February 1971, Folder: [CF] PL [Political Affairs] 1/1/ 71–8/31/71 [1971–74], Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Charles W. Colson Notes of Meetings with the President, 28 and 30 June 1972, Folder: Presidential Meeting Notes [1 of 8], Box 16, Colson Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

170. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Richardson and Nixon, 28 January 1971, Box 129, Richardson Papers. Haldeman's Diary proclaimed that Nixon wanted to abandon FAP in 1970 because of budgetary reasons. Yet he did not chuck the program until 1972 out of frustration over lack of congressional support. Haldeman Diary, 13 July 1970 and Parmet, Richard Nixon and His America, 560. At any rate, FAP was still alive in 1971.

171. Colson Meeting Notes, 17 September 1971, Folder: Meetings/Phone Conversations with President [6/23/71–12/28/71], Box 5, Colson Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

172. Memo, Nixon to Ehrlichman, 19 May 1972, Folder: Memos—May 1972, Box 4, President's Personal File, Nixon Presidential Materials; Haldeman Diary, 17 May and 9 June 1972.

173. Nixon Handwritten Comment on Memo, Morgan to Nixon, 6 July 1971, Folder: Presidential Memos 1971—Ehrlichman, Box 84, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

174. Nixon Handwritten Comment on News Summary, 18 January 1972, Action Memo #P-1986, Box 50, Staff Secretary Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

175. Ambrose, Nixon, 2:524.

176. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Richardson and Nixon, 28 January 1971, Box 129, Richardson Papers.

177. Memorandum of Conversation between Nixon, Richardson, and Shultz, 2 February 1971, Folder: Nixon, Richard M.-Memecons, Box 146, Richardson Papers.

178. Haldeman Diary, 1 November 1971. The following year, Nixon again waffled between conservative and moderate positions on high court appointments. In September, he vowed all future nominees should be conservative and none should be black. But two months later he pledged to groom for the Court African American lawyer Jewell LaFontante. Haldeman Diary, 21 September and 27 November 1972.

179. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Ehrlichman and Richardson, 9 September 1971, Folder: Education—Emergency School Aid Bill, Box 142, Richardson Papers.

180. Memo, “Gordon” to Senator Birch E. Bayh, 28 January 1972, Folder: Busing, Box 953, Birch E. Bayh Papers, Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington.

181. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Richardson and Colson, 29 December 1971, Box 131, Richardson Papers.

182. Memo, “DLH” to Colson, 5 January 1972, Folder: [CF] PL [Political Affairs] 1/1/71–8/31/71 11971–74], Box 46, Confidential Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

183. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation between Ehrlichman and Richardson, 13 August 1970, Box 127, Richardson Papers.

184. Blum, Politics of Discord, 417–21.

185. Haldeman Diary, 20 July 1972; Carter, George Wallace, Richard Nixon, 42–44; Lesher, George Wallace, 461–62.

186. Grantham, South in Modern America, 284–85.

187. Carter, Politics of Rage, 465–68; Berman, William C., America's Right Turn: From Nixon to Bush (Baltimore, 1994), 5–20Google Scholar; Brennan, Mary C., Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995), 120–37Google Scholar; Edsall, Thomas Byrne and Edsall, Mary D., Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1991), 74–98Google Scholar; Baker, Russell, “He Filled a Vacuum (editorial on Louis Farrakhan's Million Man March),” New York Times, 17 October 1995, A15Google Scholar; O'Reilly, Kenneth, Nixon's Piano: Presidents and Racial Politics from Washington to Clinton (New York, 1995), 277–329Google Scholar; Aistrup, Joseph A., The Southern Strategy Revisited: Republican Top-Doum Advancement in the South (Lexington, Ky., 1996), 32–37.Google Scholar

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189. Memo, Nixon to Leonard Hall, Robert Finch, and James Bassett, 7 September 1960, Folder 79: Memos from RN, Box 12, Finch Private Papers.

190. Haldeman Diary, 22 April 1971; Memo, Nixon to Haldeman, 4 September 1972, Folder: P Memos 1972 Part II, Box 230, Haldeman Files, Nixon Presidential Materials.

191. Haldeman Diary, 19 September 1972.

192. Sallyanne Payton, “Remarks at the Sixth Annual Presidential Conference: Richard M. Nixon,” in Richard M. Nixon, ed. Friedman and Levantrosser, 183.

193. King, Martin Luther Jr., Why We Can't Wait (New York, 1964), 84–85.Google Scholar

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