^1. A precursor of the 1930s campaign can be found in the response of the Ford Motor Company to the post–World War I depression. Ford's policy was “that Negroes should make up the same proportion of the workers as corresponded to their proportion in the population of Detroit.” Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 1120–21.Google Scholar

^2. Meier, August and Rudwick, Elliot, “The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action,” in Meier, and Rudwick, , eds., Along the Color Line (Urbana, 1976), 313–88Google Scholar; Peeks, Edward, The Long Struggle for Black Power (New York, 1971), 268–89Google Scholar; Hunter, Gary Jerome, “Don't Buy From Where You Can't Work: Black Urban Boycott Movements During the Depression, 1929–41” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1977), 256–68.Google Scholar

^3. Green v. Samuelson, 99 A.L.R. 529 (1935); Transcript, Samuelson v. Green, Baltimore City Circuit Court, Equity Papers, Maryland State Archives, Annapolis.

^4. Judgment, Samuelson v. Green; Frankfurter, Felix and Green, Nathan, The Labor Injunction (New York, 1930), 25–31Google Scholar; Transcript, Samuelson v. Green.

^5. Mitchell letter, NAACPI-G-85; Mitchell testimony in Transcript; Watson, Denton L., Lion in the Lobby: A Biography of Clarence Mitchell (New York, 1990), 88–96Google Scholar; Jackson to White, May 29, 1934; White to Jackson, June 1, 1934; June 5, 1934; June 11, 1934; NAACP I-G-85; White to Arthur B. Spingarn, June 1, 1934, Arthur B. Spingarn Papers, Box 12, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

^6. W.A.C. Hughes to Arthur B. Spingarn, June 11, 1934, Box 12, Arthur B. Spingarn Papers, LC; Maryland Court of Appeals, Records and Briefs, vol. 574, January Term, 1935.

^7. Green v. Samuelson, 99 A.L.R 529 (1935).

^8. A few states in the Northeast did prohibit racial discrimination in state employment, by utilities, and in labor unions. Bonfield, Arthur Earl, “The Origin and Development of American Fair Employment Legislation,” Iowa Law Review 52 (1967): 1043–92Google Scholar, 1051; Maslow, Will and Robison, Joseph B., “Civil Rights Legislation and the Fight for Equality, 1863–1952,” University of Chicago Law Review 20 (1953): 363–413, 393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

^9. Transcript, Samuelson v. Green.

^10. Ibid.

^11. Greenberg, Cheryl Lynn, “Or Does It Explode?”: Black Harlem in the Great Depression (New York, 1991), 114–39Google Scholar; Muraskin, William, “The Harlem Boycott of 1934,” Labor History 13 (1972), 361–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Meier and Rudwick, “Origins,” 318–19; A. S. Beck Shoe Corp. v. Johnson, 274 N.Y.S. 946 (1934); Franklin, Charles Lionel, The Negro Labor Unionist of New York (New York, 1936), 130–42.Google Scholar

^12. Johns, Vere E., “We Must Have Jobs,” The Crisis 41 (September 1934): 258Google Scholar; Schuyler, George S., “A Dangerous Boomerang,” The Crisis (September 1934): 259Google Scholar; Muraskin, “Harlem Boycott,” 364.

^13. New York Age, October 13, 1934; Amsterdam News, October 20, 1934, September 15, 1934, October 20, 1934; A. S. Beck Shoe Corp. v. Johnson, New York County Supreme Court, Index No. 33–689 (1934), New York City Hall of Records (hereafter “Beck, NYCSC”); Muraskin, “Harlem Boycott,” 363, 368; Memorandum in Support of Motion, NAACP I-D-104. The Supreme Court in New York is a trial court of original jurisdiction. Its decisions can be appealed to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court or to the New York State Court of Appeals, the state's highest tribunal. Beck did not distinguish among the various black organizations, so Johnson appeared as the principal defendant despite the fact that his organization was not involved in the picketing and disclaimed any association with the Picket Committee. The court ultimately dismissed the charges with regard to Johnson.

^14. Rosenman edited a draft opinion to remove language referring to intimidation and defamation. Beck, NYCSC.

^15. Hand, Samuel B., Counsel and Advise: A Political Biography of Samuel I. Rosenman (New York, 1979)Google Scholar; Beck, NYCSC; A. S. Beck Shoe Corp. v. Johnson, 274 N.Y.S. 946 (1934); New York Times, November 1, 1934.

^16. Walter White to Samuel I. Rosenman, November 1,1934; White to Arthur B. Spingarn, November 3, 1934; Spingarn to White, November 5, 1934; White to Spingarn, November 15, 1934; Spingarn to White, November 16, 1934; Spingarn Papers, Box 12, LC.

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^18. Ware, Gilbert, William Hastie: Grace Under Pressure (New York, 1984), 66–80Google Scholar; Meier and Rudwick, “Origins,” 321; Davis, John Aubrey, “We Win the Right to Fight for Jobs,” Opportunity 16 (August 1938): 230–37.Google Scholar

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^20. Washington Tribune, August 31, 1933; October 12, 1933; December 7, 1933.

^21. Kaufman, Inc. v. New Negro Alliance, United States District Court for the District of Columbia, Equity no. 56586, National Federal Records Center, Suitland, Md.; Washington Tribune, December 21, 1933; Sketch of New Negro Alliance History, Hastie Papers, Reel 38, LC.

^22. Ware, William Hastie, 67–71; Meier and Rudwick, “Origins,” 323–24; Blackmun, Regents of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).

^23. 47 Stat.L. 70 (1932).

^24. Washington Tribune, December 21, 1933; December 28, 1933; January 11, 1934; January 18, 1934; Pittsburgh Courier, January 27, 1934; New Negro Alliance v. Kaufman, Inc., U.S. Court of Appeals, District of Columbia, Records and Briefs, vol. 483, no. 6187 (1934).

^25. Ware, William Hastie, 76; Washington Tribune, October 12, 1933; December 21, 1933; April 26, 1934; Pittsburgh Courier, April 25, 1936; May 9, 1936.

^26. Sanitary Grocery Co. v. New Negro Alliance, Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, Equity no. 61165, Washington National Records Center, Suitland, Md.; New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, Records and Briefs, vol. 549, no. 6836 (1936)Google Scholar; Chase, Harold et al. , eds., Biographical Dictionary of the Federal Judiciary (Detroit, 1976).Google Scholar

^27. New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia, Records and Briefs, vol. 549, no. 6836.

^28. Chase et al., eds., Biographical Dictionary; New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., 92F.2d 510 (1937).

^29. Ibid. Stephens, incidentally, was a young (52), recently appointed Catholic Democrat.

^30. Petition for Writ of Certiorari, U.S. Supreme Court, Transcripts of Records and File Copies of Briefs, 1937, vol. 106, no. 511Google Scholar; New York Times, November 23, 1937.

^31. Brief for Petitioners, U.S. Supreme Court, Transcripts of Records and File Copies of Briefs, 1937, vol. 106, no. 511.Google Scholar

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^34. New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., 303 U.S. 552 (1938); New York Times, March 29, 1938.

^35. New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co., 303 U.S. 552 (1938).

^36. NAACP, 29th Annual Report for 1938 (New York, 1939), 15Google Scholar; Meier and Rudwick, “Origins,” 326; Ware, William Hastie, 79; Comment, “Labor Law—When a Dispute Exists Within the Meaning of the Norris-LaGuardia Act,” Michigan Law Review 36 (1938): 1146–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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^40. Stevens v. West Philadelphia Youth Civic League, 3 L.R.R.M. 792 (1939); 34 Pennsylvania District and County Reports 612 (1939); Siegell v. Newark National Negro Congress, 2 L.R.R. Man. 859 (1938); Newark Evening News, April 20, 1938; Newark Star-Eagle, April 20, 1938; New York Times, April 21, 1938.

^41. Texas Motion Picture and Vitaphone Operators v. Galveston Motion Picture Operators, 132 S.W. 2d 299 (1939).

^42. Cleveland Plain Dealer, May 1, 1938; May 5, 1938.

^43. “Labor—Norris-LaGuardia Act,” St. John's Law Review 13 (1938): 171Google Scholar; Anora Amusement Corp. v. Doe, 12 N.Y.S. 2d 400 (1939).

^44. Stoller v. Citizens Civic Affairs Committee, File no. 3858 (1940), Kings County Supreme Court, Clerk's Office, Brooklyn, N.Y.; 19 N.Y.S. 2d 597 (1940); Citizens Civic Affairs Committee to National Negro Congress, April 16, 1938, National Negro Congress Papers, Group I, Reel 12.

^45. Muraskin, “Harlem Boycott,” 370; Meier and Rudwick, “Origins,” 328; Memorandum for Walter White, November 1, 1939, NAACP I-C-323; Poppas v. Straughn, 7 L.R.R.M. 693 (1940); Stolper v. Straughn, 23 N.Y.S. 2d 604 (1940); File no. 11021 (1940); Solomon v. Straughn, File no. 9705 (1940); Hillary Theater v. Straughn, File no. 16694 (1940), Kings County Supreme Court Clerk's Office, Brooklyn, N.Y.

^46. Lifschitz v. Straughn, File no. 14917 (1940), Kings County Supreme Court, Clerk's Office, Brooklyn, N.Y; 27 N.Y.S. 2d 193 (1940).

^47. New York Times, April 29, 1938.

^48. Ibid., August 8, 1938; August 10, 1938.

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^55. Lawrence Oxley to Lubin, January 23, 1936, Records of Lawrence Oxley, Box 12, RG 183, NA; New York Amsterdam News, April 11, 1936; Oxley to Isador Lubin, August 17, 1935, Oxley Records, Box 12, RG 183, N A; Message of Harold Ickes to Annual NAACP Conference, 1935, Office of the Secretary, General Classified File 1–280, Box 506, RG 48, NA; “Resume of Conference on Employment Difficulties faced by Negroes on PWA Projects,” Oxley Records, Box 12, RG 183, NA.

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^76. Hughes v. Superior Court of California, 186 P.2d 756 (1947). John Hughes was the first named defendant among the Progressive Citizens, and his complaint was formally against the Superior Court's injunction. Lucky Stores was the actual interested party and it handled the defense and subsequent appeals.

^77. Petitioner's Answer to Petition for Hearing by die Supreme Court, January 9, 1948, Transcript, 83–90; Brief of Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, April 28, 1948, NAACP II-B-87.

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^83. Hughes v. Superior Court, 339 U.S. 460 (1950). William O. Douglas was recovering from a riding accident and took no part in the case. While it is impossible to say how he would have voted in 1950, twenty-four years later Douglas cited Hughes in his opposition to an affirmative-action admissions program at the University of Washington Law School; DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), 337–38. Justices Black, Minton, and Reed concurred in Frankfurter's decision upon another precedent. Justice Tom Clark prepared a dissent but did not publish it. Tushnet, Mark, “Change and Continuity in the Concept of Civil Rights: Thurgood Marshall and Affirmative Action,” Social Philosophy and Policy 8 (1991): 150–71, 154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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