The research for this essay, which was first presented to the American Historical Association annual meeting, Washington, D.C., 28 December 1987, was funded by grants from the American Council of Learned Societies, the American Philosophical Society, the Southern Regional Education Board, and by support from the University of South Carolina (sabbatical leave and grants from the Committee on Research and Productive Scholarship, the Dean of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences, the Provost's Research Incentive Committee, and the Department of History).

1. George McMillan, “Integration with Dignity: The Inside Story of How South Carolina Kept the Peace,” Saturday Evening Post, 16 March 1963, 16. King, Martin Luther Jr, “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” from Why We Can't Wait (New York, 1963), 87.Google Scholar See Chafe, William H., Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980), for a study of white moderation in North Carolina.Google Scholar

2. Belknap, Michal R., Federal haw and Southern Order: Racial Violence and Constitutional Conflict in the Post-Broum South (Athens, GA, and London, 1987), 251, x–xi, 44–52, 143–44.Google Scholar

3. Burk, Robert Frederick, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville, TN, 1984), 159–61, 174–88Google Scholar; 133–38, 144–45. Brauer, Carl M., John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (New York, 1977), 187–96.Google Scholar

4. Marshall, Burke, Federalism and Civil Rights, Foreword by Kennedy, Robert F. (New York and London, 1964), 81.Google Scholar

5. Burke Marshall, interviewed by T. H. Baker, for the University of Texas Oral History Project, 28 October 1968, AC 74–215, Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (hereafter cited as LBJL), Austin, Texas, 17.

6. Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, Memorandum for the President, Re: Use of Marshals, Troops, and Other Federal Personnel for Law Enforcement in Mississippi, 1 July 1964, President Lyndon Baines Johnson, Human Rights, Container 26, EX HU 2/ST 24, LBJL; Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, interviewed by Paige E. Mulhollan, 12 November 1968, Washington, D.C., AC 78–24, LBJL, 16.

7. Marshall, interviewed by Baker, LBJL, 18–19, 17. See Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction, 87–88, 109–11, 124–25, 146–47, 239–41, 247–62, 269–79, 298–301,315–20.

8. Robert F. Kennedy (hereafter cited as RFK) to John C. Godbold and Truman Hobbs, 9 May 1963, Attorney General's General Correspondence, Box 10, file Civil Rights: Alabama, University of, RFK Papers, John F. Kennedy Library [hereafter cited as JFKL], Boston.

9. A. G. Mezerik, “Dixie in Black and White: III. Big Jim of Alabama,” The Nation, 19 April 1947, 449; and editorial, 23 November 1946, 570.

10. Newby, I. A., Black Carolinians: A History of Blacks in South Carolina from 1895 to 1968, South Carolina Tricentennial Commission Studies, no. 6 (Columbia, 1973), 278, 288–89.Google Scholar Discussion with Patricia A. Sullivan, 9 September 1987, Columbia, S.C.

11. Tushnet, Mark V., The NAACP's Legal Strategy against Segregated Education, 1925–1950 (Chapel Hill and London, 1987), 92–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar File Teachers' Salaries—South Carolina, Richland County 1944–45, Box 186, Papers of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People [hereinafter cited as NAACP], Legal File 1940–55, Group II B, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

12. Newby, Block Carolinians, 281–91.

13. Wrightenv. Board of Trustees of University of South Carolina et al. 72 F. Supp. (1947), 948–53. Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy, 87. Thurgood Marshall to John Wrighten, 29 September 1947; Wrighten to Marshall, 27 September 1947 and 6 October 1947; and Marshall, memorandum to Messrs. [James M.] Hinton, [Harold R.] Boulware and Rev. Beard, 30 September 1947, file University of South Carolina, August 1947–49, Box 200, NAACP Legal File II.

14. Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy, 147. James F. Byrnes to John D. Rockefeller III, 14 February 1952, and to John Foster Dulles, 12 March 1952; Robert D. Caulkins to Byrnes, 21 February 1952; Press Release by Governor James F. Bymes, 5 April 1952; Byrnes to B. M. Baruch, 31 March 1953; B. C. Turner to Byrnes, 9 December 1954, with enclosures, James F. Byrnes Miscellaneous Correspondence Files, Records of the Governor, Office of the Governor as Chief Executive, Papers, 1951 — 1955 [hereafter cited as JFB Misc. Correspondence Files], South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia [hereafter cited as SC-Ar].

15. Newby, Black Carolinians, 288. Garrow, David J., editor, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It: The Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson (Knoxville, 1987).Google Scholar Judge Constance Baker Motley interviewed by Mrs. Walter Gellhorn, 7 January 1978, Columbia University Oral History Research Office [hereafter cited as CUOHRO], New York City, Interview 5, 286–89.

16. Autherine J. Lucy, and Polly Anne Myers, Plaintiffs v. Board of Trustees of The University of Alabama, et al., Defendants, U.S. District Court, N. D. Alabama, W.D., 29–30 June 1955, [in The William Stanley Hoole Special Collections Library, the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa; hereafter cited as WSHSCL]. E. Culpepper Clark, interviews with Autherine Lucy Foster, 13 and 19 March and 2 April 1975 [transcript in WSHSCL], and Clark, “The Autherine Lucy Episode: Life Histories in the Historical Moment,” presented at the American Studies Association Ninth Biennial Convention, Philadelphia, 4 November 1983. Chronology of Events Concerning Efforts of Autherine Lucy and Pollie Ann Hudson Seeking Admission As Students In The University of Alabama and Notes on Demonstrations, Oliver C. Carmichael Papers, no. 307 Race Question, WSHSCL. Marcia G. Synnott, interview with J. Jefferson Bennett, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 26 May 1980. Motley, interviewed by Gellhorn, 7 January 1978, Interview 5, 281–92.

17. Marcia G. Synnott, interview with Judge Constance Baker Motley, New York City, 16 September 1980. Phillips, Wayne, “Alabama Expels Student in Riots, New York Times, 13 March 1956, 16.Google ScholarTime: 13 February 1956, 53; 20 February 1956, 40; and 27 February 1956, 68. “First Alabama Negro Enrollment Brings 3-Day Demonstration,” Southern School News 2:9 (March 1956), 6–7.Google Scholar O. C. Carmichael to Hill Ferguson, 6 September 1956, No. 251 Negro Applications; and Carmichael to R. E. Steiner, Jr., 26 October 1956, No. 307 Race Question, Carmichael Papers, WSHSCL.

18. Wrighten (1947), 950. Inaugural Address of The Honorable James F. Byrnes as Governor of South Carolina, 16 January 1951; Byrnes, Addresses to The South Carolina Education Association, 16 March 1951 and 25 March 1954; Byrnes, Press-radio Report to the People, 27 June 1952; and Alex McCullough to John Temple Graves, 8 December 1954; Script based on “Byrnes Leads Educational Revolution in South Carolina,” recorded by Alex McCullough for broadcast over Radio Station WMSC in Columbia, SC, 1 November 1953; and folder Sales Tax 1952 Legislation, JFB Misc. Correspondence Files. Richard, Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (New York, 1977), 16–17Google Scholar, 23, 302–5, 316, 334–35, 347–48, 365–66. National Education Association, “Rankings of the States, 1960” (Washington, D.C., May 1960), 9.Google Scholar Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy, 142–43.

19. Sproat, John G., “‘Firm Flexibility’: Perspectives on Desegregation in South Carolina,” in New Perspectives on Race and Slavery in America. Essays in Honor of Kenneth M. Stampp, ed. Abzug, Robert H. and Maizlish, Stephen E. (Lexington, KY, 1986), 165–68.Google Scholar David W. Robinson to James F. Byrnes, 13 July 1954; and Robinson, “Brown vs. Board, Revisited.” 347 U.S. 483 (1954), 349 U.S. 294 (1955). Presented at the Cosmos Club, December 1973, The South Carolina School Committee (The Gressette Committee), Legal Counsel Files 1953–1974, Box 1, SC-Ar.

20. Bagwell, William, School Desegregation in the Carolinas: Two Case Studies (Columbia, SC, 1972), 149–50Google Scholar, and Greenville and School Desegregation chap. 3, 126–84. Quint, Howard H., Profile in Black and White: A Frank Portrait of South Carolina (Washington, D.C., 1958), 47, 51–53, 83–85, 90–91. (Columbia) Record, 30 August 1955, 1, and 12 September 1955. See letters in file Reprisals, South Carolina Relief Fund 1955–57, Box 192, NAACP III, Series B. General Office File. James T. McCain, Reports to the Southern Regional Council, September, November 1955 (file no. 75–04–12–53); July, September 1956 (file no. 75–04–12–48); and June 1957 (file no. 75–04–12–50). Southern Regional Archives Collection, Atlanta University Center Woodruff Library, Archives Division, Atlanta, Georgia 30314 [hereafter cited as SRCAC].Google Scholar

21. Quint, Profile in Black and White, 93. McCullough to John Temple Graves, 8 December 1954, JFB Misc. Correspondence Files, SC-Ar. Educational Finance Commission Report, 10 January 1963; and E. R. Crow to Ernest F. Hollings, 2 January 1962, Records of the Governor, Office of the Governor as Chief Executive, Papers, Ernest F. Hollings, 1959–1963 [hereafter cited as EFH], folder Educational Finance Commission, SC-Ar.

22. A. R. Meadows, State Superintendent of Education, Progress Report of Higher Education in Alahama During the Last Ten Years at A & M Institute, State Teachers College, Montgomery, and Tuskegee Institute, 17 February 1948, Papers of Governor James E. Folsom, file no. 230 Education, Department of, Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery [hereafter cited as ADA&H].

23. J. Herbert Meighan to James E. Folsom, 30 April 1949, enclosing Minutes of Meeting of Governor's Committee on Higher Education for Negroes in Alabama, 20 April 1949, and Transcript of Meeting of Governor's Committee on Higher Education for Negroes in Alabama, 20 April 1949, Folsom Papers, file 247, 1949, Education—Governor's Committee on Higher, 1 May 1949–October 194[9], ADA'H. Discussions with William D. Barnard, 2 October 1987, Tuscaloosa, and with Mrs. Exir Brennan 14 October 1987, Alabama Commission on Higher Education, Montgomery.

24. Tushnet, The NAACP's Legal Strategy, 159–61.

25. Byrnes, Inaugural Address, 16 January 1951; Byrnes to R. C. Griffith, 11 September and 20 November 1951, and to P. M. Bargar, 19 October 1951, folder Ku Klux Klan; Byrnes, Press-Radio Statement, 29 August 1951; McCullough to John Temple Graves, 8 December 1954, JFB Misc. Correspondence Files, SC-Ar. Southern School News 3:11 (May 1957), 1; 4:2 (August 1957), 13; 4:3 (September 1957), 2; and 4:7 (January 1958), 12. Newsletters, August-September 1957 and January 1958, Greenville Human Relations Council, William F. Bagwell Papers, South Caroliniana Library [hereafter cited as SCL], Columbia. Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order, 25.

26. Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order, 233, 237–38. Richmond M. Flowers, Preliminary Results of Investigation, Alabama, United Klans of America, Incorporated, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan and other Klan Organizations, 18 October 1965, Knox Collection of Radical Extremist Literature, Box 3, folder 3 Alabama K.K.K., Archives and Special Collections, John Davis Williams Library, University of Mississippi, Oxford. William D. Barnard, Chair, comment-on my paper, “Federalism Vindicated: University Desegregation in South Carolina and Alabama, 1962–1963,” AHA, 28 December 1988.

27. Quint, Profile in Black and White, 93–94, 103, 116–25. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Equal Protection of the Laws in Public Higher Education 1960 [Washington, D.C., 1961], 49, 76–80, 250, 253.Google Scholar

28. George Bell Timmerman, Jr., to William L. Watkins, 29 June 1957, Watkins to R. M. Cooper, 2 July 1957, Senator L. Marion Gressette to Watkins, 6 July 1957, Cooper to James F. Byrnes, 10 July and Cooper to Members, Board of Trustees, Dr. R. F. Poole, Mr. R. C. Edwards, 18 July 1957, file 890(4), Papers of James F. Byrnes [hereafter cited as JFB], Special Collections, Robert Muldrow Cooper Library [hereafter cited as SpC, RMCL], Clemson University.

29. Charles Wickenberg, “S.C. Governor Assails Faculty,” Charlotte Observer, 16 January 1958, clipping, file Gressette—Univ. of S.C, S.C. School Committee, Box 1, SC-Ar. Septima P. Clark to Roy Wilkins, 6 June 1956, and Wilkins to Clark, 15 June 1956, and clippings, “Students Hit Surveillance,” 11 April 1956, and “SC Governor Hanged in Effigy As Student Strike Continues,” 12 April 1956, (Columbia) State, file Reprisals—South Carolina, Gen. 1955–57, Box 192, NAACP III.

30. J. Twiley W. Barker, Jr., to Director of Legal Education, 26 February 1957, and the NAACP's answers to his questionnaire, folder Information [Misc.], NAACP Legal File, 1955–59, Container 3. Barnard, comment on my paper, “Federalism Vindicated,” AHA, 28 December 1988.

31. Gaither, Thomas, “Orangeburg: Behind the Carolina Stockade,” “Sit-Ins,” The student report (New York: CORE, May 1960).Google Scholar Gaither was later sentenced to a chain gang. Charles Joyner, audience comment on my paper, “Federalism Vindicated,” AHA, 28 December 1987.

32. Statement from Governor's Office, 10 March 1960, folder no. 15, and Press Release, 6 April 1960, folder no. 14 Segregation, EFH, SC-Ar. Lofton, Paul S. Jr, “Calm and Exemplary: Desegregation in Columbia, South Carolina,” in Jacoway, Elizabeth and Colburn, David R., Southern Businessmen and Desegregation (Baton Rouge and London, 1982) 75–76, 70–81.Google Scholar (Columbia) State, 3 March 1961, 1-D. Interview with Senator Ernest F. Hollings, Columbia, S. C., 8 July 1980.

33. James Edwards, Jr., et al., Petitioners, v. South Carolina. 372 U.S. 229, 9 L. Ed. 2d 697, 83 S. Ct. 680 [No. 86]. U.S. Supreme Court Reports, October Term, 1962, 701–703, 697–708; Edwards v. South Carolina, 83 S. Ct. 680, 372 U.S. 229, 9 L. Ed. 2d 697, in West's Federal Practice Digest, 2d, vol. 14, Constitutional Law 268 to 277 (St. Paul, MN, 1980), 419.

34. Marshall, Federalism and Civil Rights, 9, 76, 63–66, 69–71, 75–76.

35. South Carolina Council on Human Relations to the Southern Regional Council, Inc., Request for Financial Aid, 12 July 1957 (file no. 75–04–12–46). [SRCAC], Bagwell, School Desegregation in the Carolinas, 153. South Carolina was the last state to appoint an advisory committee (1959) to the U.S. Civil Rights Commission.

36. Benjamin Muse, Memorandum, “South Carolina Notes (From February Visits),” 7 March 1962; and Confidential Memorandum, February Itinerary, 8 March 1962, (file no. 75–01–59–03); and Julian M. Longley, Summary of Activity, Week Ending 2 September 1961 (file no. 75–01–58–26). [SRCAC].

37. Benjamin Muse, Confidential Memoranda, “South Carolina Notes, 26–27 March, 18 April 1962,” 25 April 1962; and “South Carolina, 27 May–2 June 1962,” 8 June 1962 (file no. 75–01–59–03). [SRCAC].

38. Burke Marshall to Augustus T. Graydon, 23 February 1962, Chronological File, February 1962, Box 1, Burke Marshall Papers (hereafter cited as BMP), JFKL.

39. Spann, W. F., “Suddenly, It's Hollings as the Senate's Top Money Man,” Paid for by The Citizens Committee for Hollings, Ernest F., [Columbia, SC], 1980.Google Scholar Announcement of candidacy for governor [January 1958], folder News, EFH, SC-Ar. Roy E. Riddle to Larry O'Brien, 23 February 1961, folder PL/ST 40, Box 690 White House Central Files, JFK Papers; “A Study of the Primary Outlook in South Carolina,” by Louis Harris and Associates, Inc., December 1961, RFK Attorney General's Correspondence, Personal, 1961–64, File Polls, Primary Outlook in South Carolina, JFKL.

40. Gantt v. Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina. 213 F. Supp. 103 (1962); Gantt v. Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina. 320 F. 2d 611 (1963). McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 16–17, 15–21.

41. McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 16–17.

42. Motley, interviewed by Gellhorn, 12 January 1978, Interview no. 6, 336, 339, 340–41, 354–55, 333–57.

43. Hollings, as quoted in McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 17, 18, 20. Outline of the Advanced Plan of Law Enforcement, Maintenance of Student Discipline and Arrangements for the Press …, as approved by Governor E. F. Hollings on 12 January 1963, file Integration 1963 Plans and Procedures “A” [J. Jefferson Bennett Papers], WSHSCL. Charles H. Wickenberg, “S.C. Was Surveyed By Dept. of Justice,” (Columbia) State, 24 January 1963, clipping, W. D. Workman Collection, file Clemson, SCL.

44. McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 18–20. Bagwell, School Desegregation in the Carolines, 162–71. Editorial, “Bless You, Senator Brown,” (Columbia) Record 24 December 1962, 12–A.

45. Hollings, as quoted in McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 20. Gantt v. Clemson, 320 F. 2d 611 (1963).

46. Gressette, as quoted in McMillan, “Integration with Dignity,” 20–21.

47. Robert F. Kennedy, as quoted in editorial, “Attorney General: A Wise Man,” Cheraw (SC) Chronicle, 2 May 1963, 2–B. Burke Marshall to Paul D. Rogers, 14 September 1964, Chronological File; and Marshall to Lester L. Bates, 16 November 1964, Chronological File, Box 2, BMP. Newby, Black Carolinians, 279.

48. Lee C. White, Memorandum for the President, 4 April 1963, file Subjects South Carolina, Box 106, Presidential Office Files, JFK. “Kennedy Praises S.C. Newsmen,” (Charleston) News and Courier, 5 April 1963, clipping, Integration, SpC, RMCL.

49. Pat Young to Joseph F. Dolan, 17 April 1963, enclosing copy of letter from George A. LeMaistre to Dr. Robert C. Edwards, 9 April 1963; H. H. Prichett to Robert C. Edwards, 5 April 1963; and John K. Cauthen to George A. LeMaistre, H. H. Pritchett, Jack W. Warner, 5 April 1963, Department of Justice microfilm, Reel 9, FOIA request, JFKL. Outline of the Advanced Plan of Law Enforcement …, 12 January 1963. Telephone conversation with Mr. George A. LeMaistre, Tuscaloosa, 2 October 1987.

50. John K. Cauthen to George A. LeMaistre, H. H. Pritchett, Jack W. Warner, 5 April 1963, folder Correspondence, Box 17, Alabama File, BMP and Department of Justice microfilm, Reel 9, JFKL.

51. George A. LeMaistre to Dr. Robert C. Edwards, 9 April 1963; H. H. Prichett to Robert C. Edwards, 5 April 1963; and Pat Young to Joseph F. Dolan, 17 April 1963, Department of Justice microfilm, Reel 9. Pat Young to Ken O'Donnell, 17 April 1963, and Edgar A. Brown to Pat Young, 15 April 1963, BMP.

52. Discussions with William D. Barnard, 10 April 1987, Charleston, and 2 October 1987, Tuscaloosa. Robert Corley, “In Search of Racial Harmony: Birmingham Business Leaders and Desegregation, 1950–1963,” in Southern Businessmen and Desegregation, ed. Jacoway and Colburn, 179–82, 170–90.

53. J. Mills Thornton III, comments on John G. Sproat's “The Limits of Moderation in South Carolina,” presented at Organization of American Historians annual meeting, Philadelphia, 4 April 1987.

54. Synnott, interview with Bennett, 26 May 1980. University of Alabama News Bureau, 9 November 1962, file Integration 1963 Plans and Procedures “B” [J. Jefferson Bennett Papers], WSHSCL; “Trustees Say—University: Law, Order,” Birmingham News, 12 November 1962, clipping with note: “The attached editorial about the University of Alabama's efforts to head off ‘an Oxford incident’ is encouraging,” from Lou F. Oberdorfer to Robert Kennedy, 14 November 1962, file Civil Rights, Mississippi, Box 11, RFK Attorney General's General Correspondence; and Burke Marshall, Memorandum Re: University of Alabama, 22 May 1963, file Civil Rights: Alabama, University of, Box 10, RFK Attorney General's General Correspondence. Marshall, Memorandum to the File, Re: University of Alabama, 5 and 19 March 1963; J. Jefferson Bennett, letter to Marshall, 4 March 1963, enclosing list of active black applicants, file Memoranda University of Alabama, Box 17, BMP. Marshall frequently communicated with lawyer Charles Morgan, who prepared for the admission of David Mack McGlathery to evening mathematics classes at the University of Alabama's Extension Center at Huntsville (Box 10, Telephone logs, files April, May, and June 1963). Marcia G. Synnott, interview with Frank A. Rose, Washington, D.C., 21 May 1981. Rose, who earned a bachelor of divinity degree from Transylvania Seminary, served as president of Transylvania College (1951–58). In 1955 the Junior Chamber of Commerce named him one of the ten outstanding young men of the United States, along with Robert Kennedy and Ernest F. Hollings. Katzenbach, interviewed by Mulhollan, 12 November 1968, 13.

55. George A. LeMaistre, copy of a speech sent by Linda K. Stores to David Brinkley of NBC, General Correspondence, file December 1962, Box 5, BMP. Elizabeth Jacoway, “An Introduction: Civil Rights and the Changing South,” in Jacoway and Colburn, eds., Southern Businessmen and Desegregation, 5–6.

56. George C. Wallace's Inaugural Address, Birmingham News, 14 January 1963, 1. Transcript of Conversation Between Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and Governor Wallace, Montgomery, Alabama, 25 April 1963, Memoranda University of Alabama, Box 17, BMP. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction, 190, 252–60.

57. Marshall, interviewed by Baker, 28 October 1968, 21–22. Major General Harold K. Johnson, memorandum for General Maxwell Taylor on Location, Strengths and Capabilities of National Guard Units in Vicinity of Huntsville, Alabama, 7 May 1963, Alabama File, Box 17, BMP.

58. Synnott, interview with Bennett, 26 May 1980. RFK [initial] Memorandum, Re: University of Alabama, file Civil Rights Alabama Notebook, 5/1963 Memoranda, Box 11, RFK Papers, Attorney General's Correspondence, Personal. Burke Marshall, Memorandum to the Members of the Cabinet, Re: University of Alabama [5–21–63], Alphabetical File, RFK, Box 3, and Description of Procedure, Re: University of Alabama, file Alabama Notebook May-June 1963, Box 17, BMP. William H. Orrick, Jr., Memoranda to Attorney General, 29 May 1963, Status of telephone calls concerning University of Alabama, and 6 June 1963, Telephone Calls Concerning University of Alabama, file Civil Rights: Alabama, University of, Box 10, RFK Attorney General's General Correspondence, and Department of Justice microfilm, Reels 9B and 9C. George Dan Jones, Jr., “The Last Door Swings Open: A Historical Chronology of the Desegregation of the University of Alabama” (Ed. D., The University of Alabama, 1982), 140.

59. Orrick, Memoranda to Attorney General, 29 May 1963. Post Office Department, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Treasury Department, Department of Commerce, and Federal Aviation Agency, Memoranda on Conversations—5/28/63, 5/29/63, 5/31/63, file Civil Rights Alabama Notebook, Box 11, RFK Papers, Attorney General's Correspondence, Personal. Two university trustees were on the constitutional law committee.

60. D. Robert Owen to Burke Marshall, 6 June 1963, Governor Wallace, University of Alabama, file Memoranda University of Alabama, Box 17, BMP. Synnott, interview with Bennett, 26 May 1980.

61. Owen to Marshall, 6June 1963, and Synnott, interview with Bennett, 26 May 1980. Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, memorandum to Attorney General, 31 May 1963, file Civil Rights: Alabama, University of, Box 10, RFK Attorney General's General Correspondence.

62. Synnott, interviews with Bennett, 26 May 1980; with Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, Princeton, NJ, 22 June 1981; with Governor George C. Wallace, Montgomery, 10 November 1980; and with Mrs. Vivian Malone Jones, Atlanta, 10 March 1981. Jones, , “The Last Door Swings Open,” 177. “Races,” Time, (21 June 1963), 13–18.Google Scholar “Nation's Crisis Crowds In on One Man, Life, 21 June 1963, 119.

63. President Kennedy, televised speech to the nation, 11 June 1963. “Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment,” ABC and Drew Associate Producer, ABC Narration James Lipscomb, IFP: 132, Audio-Visual Division, JFKL. Anthony Lewis, “A New Racial Era,” New York Times, 13 June 1963, 14.

64. Katzenbach, interviewed by Mulhollan, LBJL, 13. Synnott, interviews with Bennett, 26 May 1980, and with Wallace, 10 November 1980. Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order, 96–98, 229.

65. Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order, 248, 250, 251. Newby, Black Carolinians, 289.

66. Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order, 232–33, 334 n. 10. Bass, Jack and Nelson, Jack, The Orangeburg Massacre, 2d edition (Macon, GA.: Mercer University Press, 1984).Google Scholar