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Freedom of Communication: Visions and Realities of Postwar Telecommunication Orders in the 1940s

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 June 2015

Frank Beyersdorf
Frank Beyersdorf*
Affiliation:
University of Mannheim
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Journal of Policy History , Volume 27 , Special Issue 3: The Governance of International Communications: Business, Politics, and Standard-Setting in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries , July 2015 , pp. 492 - 520
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Copyright © Donald Critchlow and Cambridge University Press 2015 

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Footnotes

I am indebted to the invaluable help provided by the editors of this special issue as well as Gabriel Cooper, Carsten Gräbel, and Florian Pressler in preparing this article.

References

NOTES

1. “Communications Fight Looms to Ensure U.S. World Trade and News,” Washington Post, 1 October 1944.

2. This is an internationalized version of an argument by Blanchard, Margaret A., “Reclaiming Freedom of the Press: A Hutchins Commission Dream or Nightmare?” Communication Law and Policy 3, no. 3 (1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; White, Llewellyn and Leigh, Robert D., Peoples Speaking to Peoples: A Report on International Mass Communication from the Commission on Freedom of the Press (Chicago, 1946).Google Scholar See also Blanchard, Margaret A., Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of 1945–1952 (New York, 1986)Google Scholar, which is more fully investigated in the author’s Ph.D. on international media policy in the 1940s.

3. Bayly, Christopher A., The Birth of the Modern World: Global Connections and Comparisons 1780–1914 (Malden, Mass., 2007), 247–83.Google Scholar For examples within European nations, see Millward, Robert, Private and Public Enterprise in Europe: Energy, Telecommunications, and Transport 1830–1990 (Cambridge, 2005), 107f., 171–202, 244–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For international regulation before the research period, see Simone Müller-Pohl, “Wiring the Pacific: North American Perspectives on a (De-)colonial Project,” in Eva Bischoff et al., ed., Provincializing the United States: Colonialism, Decolonisation, and (Post)Colonial Governance in Transnational Perspective (forthcoming), 155–82; Ibd, Wiring the World: The Social and Cultural Creation of Global Telegraph Networks (New York, 2015, forthcoming); Wenzelhumer, Roland, Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World the Telegraph and Globalization (Cambridge, 2013)Google Scholar; Schwoch, James, “American Radio Industry and International Communications Conferences 1919–1927,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 7, no. 3 (1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4. Pike, Robert M. and Winseck, Dwayne R., Communication and Empire: Media, Markets, and Globalization, 1860–1930 (Durham, 2007), 322, 330–33, 341–43.Google Scholar

5. Haas, Peter M., “Introduction: Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination,” International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Laborie, Léonard, L’Europe mise en réseaux: La France et la coopération internationale dans les postes et les télécommunications 1850–1950 (Brussels, 2010), 312, 332–44Google Scholar; Laborie, “Fragile Links, Frozen Identities: The Governance of Telecommunication Networks and Europe, 1944–53,” History and Technology 27, no. 3 (2011): 318.

6. Schiller, Herbert I., Communication and Cultural Domination (White Plains, N.Y., 1976)Google Scholar; Wells, Clare, The UN, UNESCO, and the Politics of Knowledge (Basingstoke, 1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7. Hills, Jill, Telecommunications and Empire (Urbana, 2007), 27–53Google Scholar; Headrick, Daniel R., The Invisible Empire: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851–1945 (Oxford, 1991), 260–67.Google Scholar

8. Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 289–313. George Arthur Codding’s The International Telecommunication Union: An Experiment in International Cooperation (Leiden, 1952) is still the standard work on ITU.

9. Amrith, Sunil and Sluga, Glenda, “New Histories of the United Nations,” Journal of World History 19, no. 3 (2008)Google Scholar; Brinkley, Douglas and Hoopes, Townsend, FDR and the Creation of the United Nations (New Haven, 1997)Google Scholar; Hearden, Patrick J., Architects of Globalism: Building a New World Order During World War II (Fayetteville, Ark., 2002)Google Scholar; Mazower, Mark, Governing the World: The History of an Idea (London, 2012), 191–230Google Scholar; Schlesinger, Stephen C., Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations: A Story of Superpowers, Secret Agents, Wartime Allies and Enemies, and Their Quest for a Peaceful World, 2nd ed. (Boulder, 2003).Google Scholar

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11. Ibid.

12. Rodgers, Daniel T., Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, Mass, 1998), 494.Google Scholar

13. R. Irvine Douglas to Campbell Stuart, 6 November 1940 and Note, 16 December 1940, British Telecom Archives (BT) POST33/5416; Note on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference, 31 March 1943, and Stuart, Note for the UK Treasury on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference, 18 March 1943, BT POST102/42. Press criticism of telecommunication services existed since the first cables: Potter, Simon J., News and the British World: The Emergence of an Imperial Press System, 1876–1922 (Oxford, 2003), 139–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14. J. G. Owen to Harvey, Memo, 18 February 1940, Cambridge University: Royal Commonwealth Society Library (CUL-RCMS) 33/6/7/2; Breckinridge Long to Sumner Welles, 10 April 1942, Library of Congress (LOC), Long Papers Box 210 (hereafter LOC Long Papers).

15. Ibid.

16. Edward Wilshaw to the Permanent Secretary of the Treasury, 27 February and 27 March 1942, CUL-RCMS 33/6/7.

17. Headrick, Invisible Empire, 265.

18. Franklin D. Roosevelt to John Curtin and reply, U.S. State Department Press Release 675, 25 December 1941, and Lord Beaverbrook to Harry Hopkins, 2 April 1942, LOC Long Papers Box 191.

19. List of Direct Wireless Telegraph Circuits Established During the War at the Desire of the Governments, in Report on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference Australia, C.T.C.(Aust.)42, December 1942, 36, UK National Archives (UKNA) CAB21/1747. For a similar, but Pacific-regional debate on cables in the late nineteenth century, see Müller-Pohl, “Wiring the Pacific,” 165–74.

20. Memo on Radio Communications with India, 11 and 13 May 1942; Long to Winant, 23 May 1942; James L. Fly to Long, 21 April 1942, LOC Long Papers, Box 110.

21. Campbell Stuart, Memo of the Chairman of the Imperial Communications Advisory Committee for the 155th and 166th meeting 3 January and 12 April 1942, in Campbell Stuart, Memo for Horace Wilson, 19 February 1942; Barlow to Stuart, 24 February 1942; and Edward Wilshaw to the Permanent Secretary of the Treasury, 27 March 1942, all in: CUL-RCMS 33/5/7/2, Breckinridge Long, Memo for Harry Hopkins, 28 January 1942, LOC Long Papers Box 191.

22. Stuart, Aide Memoire for Sir Alan Barlow in Meeting with Sir Edward Wilshaw, 28 September 1942, CUL-RCMS 33/5/7/2.

23. Stuart, Memorandum by the Chairman, CCC 159, 13 February 1945, 23, UKNA CAB21/1747; Report on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference Australia, C.T.C.(Aust.)42, December 1942, 29, 31–32, UKNA CAB21/1747; Evening Post Wellington (New Zealand), 13 September 1941, 7.

24. Memo on Telecommunications, May 1944, in Campbell Stuart, Opportunity Knocks Once (London, 1952), 229.

25. Report on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference Australia, C.T.C. (Aust.)42, December 1942, 9–28, 43f., UKNA CAB21/1747; Note on the Commonwealth Telegraph Conference, 31 March 1943, BT POST102/42.

26. Stuart, Memorandum by the Chairman, CCC159, 13 February 1945, 24f, UKNA CAB21/1747; Note of a meeting held at the Treasury, 1 November 1943, CUL-RCMS 33/5/7/2.

27. Buckley, Note for the Record, 4 May 1944 UKNA CAB21/1747; and Stuart, Opportunity Knocks Once, 125f.

28. E.E.B, Note for the Record, 23 January 1945, UKNA CAB21/2520.

29. Buckley, Note for the Record, 4 May 1944; Buckley, Proposal for an Empire Communication Corporation for Telecommunication Services (Buckley to H. G. Leonard-Williams, 9 May 1944), UKNA CAB21/1747; and Birchall, Dixon, Ismay, Harvey, Empire Telecommunication Service: Draft Proposal for an Empire Operating Corporation, 18 January 1945, UKNA CAB21/2520.

30. Ernest Fisk, Memo on Empire Rates, CCC 121, 4 July 1944, UKNA CAB21/1747.

31. W. W. Shaw-Zamba, Summary of a Memo on “World Telecommunications” by the Directors of “Telephone and General Trust Limited,” CCC 109, 26 May 1944, UKNA CAB21/1747.

32. Meeting of the War Cabinet, 22 November 1944, W.M.(44) 154th, UKNA CAB21/1748; Dominion Office to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, 22 December 1944, and Lord Reith, Report on India, 22 February 1945 UKNA CAB21/2520.

33. Lord Reith, Report from Australia, 7 February 1945, UKNA CAB21/2520.

34. Canberra Proposals, 6 February 1945, in UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Preparations Committee, Minutes of the first meeting, 3 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026; High Commissioner New Zealand to Dominion Office, 30 December 1944; Reith to Dominion Office, 7 February 1945; War Cabinet, Empire Telecommunication Services: Lord Reith’s Mission, W.P.(45)246, 13 April 1945, UKNA CAB21/2520; and Lord Reith, Commonwealth Telecommunications: Report on His Mission to the Dominions, India, and Southern Rhodesia, 30 March 1945 UKNA CAB124/868. For postwar Britain, see Fielding, Steven, Thompson, Peter, and Tiratsoo, Nick, England Arise! The Labour Party and Popular Politics in 1940s Britain (Manchester, 1995)Google Scholar; Pelling, Henry, The Labour Governments, 1945–1951 (New York, 1984).Google Scholar

35. Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(45) 2nd Meeting, 18 July 1945; Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(45) 3rd to 6th Meeting, 19 and 23 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

36. Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(45) Opening Session, 16 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

37. Headrick, Invisible Empire, 266–67; Treasury, Cable, and Wireless Ltd.: Proposed Transfer to Public Ownership, Cmd.6805, HMSO (London, 1946).

38. On human rights, see Borgwardt, Elizabeth, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass., 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Burke, Roland, Decolonization and the Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia, 2011)Google Scholar; Cmiel, Kenneth, “The Recent History of Human Rights,” American Historical Review (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glendon, Nary A., A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (New York, 2001)Google Scholar; Morsink, Johannes, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent (Philadelphia, 1999)Google Scholar; Moyn, Samuel, “Die Neue Historiographie der Menschenrechte,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 38, no. 4 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge, Mass., 2010).

39. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossing.

40. Clavin, Patricia, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations 1920–1946 (Oxford, 2014).Google Scholar

41. Schwoch, , American Radio Industry, 294–297Google Scholar.

42. McChesney, Robert W., Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–1935 (New York, 1994), 208f., 216–18, 249–51Google Scholar; Slotten, Hugh R., Radio and Television Regulation: Broadcast Technology in the United States, 1920–1960 (Baltimore, 2000), 43f., 83, 94, 112.Google Scholar

43. Codding, ITU, 42f.; Hills, Struggle for Control, 210; Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 33.

44. Brinson, Susan L., The Red Scare, Politics, and the Federal Communications Commission, 1941–1960 (Westport, Conn., 2004), 26–28, 35, 50, 61–89Google Scholar; Brinkley, Alan, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York, 1995), 48–63Google Scholar; Kang, Joon-Man, “Franklin D. Roosevelt and James L. Fly: The Politics of Broadcast Regulation. 1941–1944,” Journal of American Culture 10, no. 2 (1987)Google Scholar; Stamm, Michael, Sound Business: Newspapers, Radio, and the Politics of New Media (Philadelphia, 2006), 105f., 111f., 147f.Google Scholar

45. Fly (DCB) to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 14 November 1941, U.S. National Archives and Record Collection (NARA) RG 259, Box 1, File “DCB–Direct Com[mmunications] w[ith the] Br[itish] Emp[ire],” also quoted in Headrick, Invisible Empire, 260f.

46. LaFeber, Walter, “FDR’s Worldviews 1941–1945,” in FDR’s World War, Peace, and Legacies, ed. Woolner, David B., Kimball, Warren F., and Reynolds, David (New York, 2008), 222Google Scholar; Hearden, Architects of Globalism, 5–7, 22–27, 39–64, 74f.; Rodgers, Atlantic Crossing, 417ff. For the actual implementation of the postwar economic order, see Schild, Georg, Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks: American Economic and Political Postwar Planning in the Summer of 1944 (Basingstoke, 1995).Google Scholar

47. Fortune, May 1944, quoted in Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 43.

48. “Communications Fight Looms to Ensure U.S. World Trade and News,” Washington Post, 1 October; Fly, “A Free Flow of News Must Link the Nations,” Free World, August 1944; Christian Science Monitor, 21 September 1944; and New York Times, 9 October 1944.

49. Stuart, Campbell, Report on Telecommunication (Visit to the United States), 3 February 1944, CUL-RCMS 33/6/1 (also in UKNA CAB104/170); and Wall Street Journal, 9 July 1941Google Scholar. See also Headrick, Invisible Weapon, 208–10; Hills, Struggle for Control, 210–14, 218f.

50. Winseck and Pike, Communication and Empire, 328f., 336; Hills, Struggle for Control, 208f., 211f.; McChesney, Telecommunications, Mass Media, 250.

51. Winseck and Pike, Communication and Empire, 337.

52. Headrick, Invisible Empire, 261; Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 36f.; Stamm, Sound Business, 138; Memo of a Conversation on a Committee for Contact with Representatives of the FCC, 2 May 1940, LOC Long Papers Box 210.

53. Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 37–39; The Merger of the Western Union Telegraph Company and the Postal Telegraph Company, ICC(43)55, 23 November 1943, UKNA CAB104/170.

54. Long to Sumner Welles, Memo, 15 December 1941, LOC Long Papers Box 191.

55. Memo Fly, James L. to FCC, 19 January 1942, NARA RG 259, Box 1, File “DCB–Direct Com[munications] w[ith] Br[itish] Emp[ire],” also quoted in Headrick, Invisible Empire, 262Google Scholar.

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57. Stuart, Campbell, Report on Telecommunication (Visit to the United States), 3 February 1944, CUL–RCMS 33/6/1; and Memo for the Chancellor of the Exchequer, 29 March 1944, UKNA CAB21/1747; Communications Fight Looms to Ensure U.S. World Trade and News, Washington Post, 29 October 1944Google Scholar.

58. United States of America: Telecommunications Policy, CCC 98, 19 May 1944, UKNA CAB21/1747.

59. “Fly Charges British Trust Curbs U.S. News,” Editor & Publisher, 18 March 1944, 9.

60. Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 40f.; see also Memo UK Post Office to War Cabinet, Imperial Communications Committee, American Rate Policy, I.C.C.(45)21, 5 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026; H. Townshend, Note for the Minister of State, 4 June 1946, in BTA, POST33/5831.

61. FO Research Department, U.S. Memo: International Telegraphic and Wireless Communications, 3 April 1944, UKNA CAB104/170.

62. Brinson, Politics, Red Scare, 62, 82–84, 96–106, 114; Kang, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 30; Stamm, Sound Business, 135–38.

63. FO Research Department, U.S. Memo: International Telegraphic and Wireless Communications, 3 April 1944, UKNA CAB104/170.

64. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Communication, 28.

65. Post Office, Memo on Telecommunication Problems for Discussion with United States, n.d. (c. December 1944), UKNA CAB21/1748.

66. Birchall to Western Union, 11 May 1945, and Birchall to Commercial Cable, 11 May 1945, in Informal Discussion of the U.S. and British Delegation for Postwar Telecommunications Planning, 16 March 1945, in UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Commonwealth–U.S. Relations on Telecommunications Issues, C.T.C.(P.C.2), 25 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

67. Memo UK POST Office for War Cabinet, Imperial Communications Committee, American Rate Policy, I.C.C.(45)21, 5 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

68. Foreign Office to UK Embassy Washington, 5 May 1945, and Halifax UK Embassy Washington to Foreign Office, 17 May 1945 and 3 July 1945, Paul Gore–Both to Rodney A. Gallop, 18 July 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

69. Memo on a Conversation on Merger of American Communication Companies engaged in International Communications, 17 March 1944, LOC Long Papers Box 210; Breckinridge Long, Recommendations, 20 March 1944, LOC Long Papers Box 201.

70. Hart, Justin, Empire of Ideas: The Origins of Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of U.S. Foreign Policy (Oxford, 2013), 4–8, 36.Google Scholar

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72. Foreign Office to UK Embassy Washington, 5 May 1945, and Halifax UK Embassy Washington to Foreign Office, 17 May 1945 and 3 July 1945, Paul Gore–Both to Rodney A. Gallop, 18 July 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

73. Halifax UK Embassy Washington to Foreign Office, 2 July 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

74. UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Commonwealth–U.S. Relations on Telecommunications Issues, C.T.C.(P.C.2), 25 May 1945; and Foreign Office to UK Embassy Washington, 25 May 1945 in UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Minutes of the Second Meeting, C.T.C.(P.C.3), 28 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

75. Foreign Office, Memo on Discussions with the United States, in Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(P.C.25), 10 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

76. D. D. Maclean to Foreign Office, 16 February 1945, and Halifax (UK Embassy Washington) to Foreign Office, 28 June 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

77. Ernest Fisk, Memo on Empire Rates, CCC 121, 4 July 1944, UKNA CAB21/1747.

78. Draft Brief for the Publicity Officer to the Conference in UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(P.C.20), 29 June 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

79. Note of a Meeting at the Treasury, 13 December 1944, UKNA CAB21/1748; and UK American Policy Working Party, Minutes Fifth Meeting, 23 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

80. D. D. Maclean to Foreign Office, 16 February 1945, and Halifax to Foreign Office, 28 June 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

81. Foreign Office, Memo on Discussions with the United States, in Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C.(P.C.25), 10 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

82. Bermuda Telecommunication Conference 1945, Minutes of the Opening Meeting, 22 November 1945, BTA PO121/466.

83. R. J. P. Harvey to Proctor, 14 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026, and Bermuda Telecommunications Conference 1945, Cmd. 6818, London 1946, 3, 8.

84. Halifax UK Embassy Washington to Foreign Office, 3 July 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

85. Bermuda Telecommunications Conference 1945, Cmd. 6818, London 1946, 3–7; Mussio, Laurence B., Telecom Nation: Telecommunications, Computers, and Governments in Canada (Montreal, 2001), 56.Google Scholar

86. Hills, Telecommunication and Empire, 45f., 62f.

87. Foreign Office, Memo on Discussions with the United States, in Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference, C.T.C. (P.C.25), 10 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

88. Cordell Hull to Roosevelt, Special Interdepartmental Committee ion Communications: Peace Terms, n.d. (c. September 1943), UKNA FO 115/3571; H. Townshend to Gallop, 24 April 1945: Telecommunication Union and Regulation: The United States’ Proposal for Revision, BTA, POST33/5831; and Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 47. For Axis regulation, see Laborie, , L’Europe mise en réseaux, 332–44Google Scholar.

89. Mance, Oswald, International Telecommunications (London, 1944), 74–83.Google Scholar

90. H. Townshend to Gallop, 24 April 1945, Telecommunication Union and Regulation: The United States’ Proposal for Revision, Memo to Sargent, 23 August 1945, and Extract from the Report of the Governments of the Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference 1945, Section VIII: International Arrangements, n.d. (c. September 1945), BTA POST33/5831. UK Delegation, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: ITU, Minutes Second Meeting, C.T.C.(46)3, 13 July 1945; ibid., Meeting of the Committee on International Arrangements, C.T.C.(I)(45) 1st Meeting, 20 July 1945 and C.T.C.(I)(45) 2nd Meeting, 26 July 1945, UKNA T162/1026.

91. F. S. Barton to A. Stanley Angwin, 30 March 1944; de Wolf to Stanley Angwin, 17 April 1944; and Angwin to de Wolf, 26 June, U.S.NA RG59 DF1940–44, Box 1555. UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Commonwealth–U.S. Relations on Telecommunications Issues, C.T.C.(P.C.2), 25 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026; N.n. to Daish, 3 April 1945, all in: BTA, POST33/5831; Hills, Telecommunications and Empire, 47f.; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 293.

92. Journal des Télécommunications, March 1944, 43–47, translation in State Departments Telecommunication Division, No. 183, LOC Long Papers Box 210.

93. Informal Discussion of the U.S. and British Delegation for Postwar Telecommunications Planning, 16 March 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

94. Ibid. Codding, ITU, 241f.; Codding, George A. and Rutkowski, Anthony M., The International Telecommunication Union in a Changing World (Dedham, 1982), 19, 25Google Scholar; Hills, Struggle for Control, 204f.; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 296–98; Schwoch, James, Global TV: New Media and the Cold War, 1946–1969 (Urbana, 2009), 21fGoogle Scholar; Schwoch, American Radio Industry, 292, 302.

95. Halifax to Foreign Office, 2 July 1945, UKNA CAB21/1748.

96. Postmaster General to Minister of State Foreign Office, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Minister of Information, Dominions and Colonial Secretaries and Secretary of State for Indian, 9 October 1945, BTA, POST33/5831.

97. Gurunath V. Bewoor, Commonwealth Telecommunications Conference: Report by the Committee on International Arrangements, C.T.C.(45)18, UKNA T162/1026; Postmaster General to Minister of State Foreign Office, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Minister of Information, Dominions and Colonial Secretaries and Secretary of State for India, 8 October 1945, BTA, POST33/5831.

98. International Arrangements: Brief History of International Telecommunication Convention, n.d. (c. January 1945), HQ(G)72/46 in BTA, POST33/5831; Laborie, “Fragile Links,” 315. The U.S. carrier ITT, for instance, resided, researched, and manufactured in New Jersey just across the Hudson, see Sobel, Robert, ITT: The Management of Opportunity (New York, 1982), 102–6.Google Scholar

99. The crucial Soviet side remains underexamined as no work has yet used Soviet archives.

100. Codding, ITU, 197–204; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 292–94; Laborie, “Fragile Links,” 314f. On Dumbarton Oaks, see Hilderbrand, Robert C., Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security (Chapel Hill, 1990).Google Scholar

101. Summary of an Informal Interview between the Broadcasting Attaché of the Ministry of Information with Dr. von Ernst, Annex to Memo by the UK Preparations Committee, Commonwealth Telecommunication Conference 1945: International Telecommunication Union, C.TC (45)3, 13 July 1946, BTA, POST33/5831; Background Memo on Developments in Telecommunications, n.d. (February or March 1947), U.S.NA RG59 Lot55D323 1941–47, Box 7; Codding, ITU, 205–9, 230f.

102. Background Memo on Developments in Telecommunications, n.d. (c. March 1947), U.S.NA RG59 Lot55D323, 1941–47, Box 7, Codding, ITU, 205–9; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 297–302; ITU, Documents of the International Telecommunications Conference, 12f.; Berne Bureau, “La Conférence international des radiocommunications d’Atlantic City,” Journal des Télécommunications 14, no. 6 (1947): 113.

103. Codding, ITU, 236–328; Codding/Ruthkowski, ITU, 22–43; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 299–308; Laborie, “Fragile Links,” 317f.

104. Tomlinson, John D., Memo on Proposed High Frequency Broadcasting Regulations, 8 May 1947, and Tomlinson to Walther Kotschnig, 17 February 1947, U.S.NA RG59 Lot55D323, 1941–47, Box 7; Hart, Empire of Ideas, 74–81Google Scholar.

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106. Berne Bureau, “La Conférence d’Atlantic City, “Journal des Télécommunications 14, no. 8 (1947): 157.

107. Berne Bureau of the ITU, International Telecommunication Convention, Atlantic City, 1947, 22–24.

108. Codding/Ruthkowski, ITU, 25f.; Codding, ITU, 38–41, 98–100, 118f., 132–36, 161f., 209–28, 241–328; Hills, Struggle for Control, 202, 213; Hills, Telecommunication and Empire, 49–53, 62; Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 299–308; Laborie, “Fragile Links,” 317f.; Schwoch, Global TV, 19–25.

109. Nerone, John C., ed., Last Rights: Revisiting “Four Theories of the Press” (Urbana, 1995).Google Scholar

110. “Editorial, The World’s Press News,” 17 March 1944, quoted in New York Times, 18 March 1944. See also Cordell Hull to James L. Fly, 18 August 1941, U.S.NA RG59 DF1940–44, Box 1555.

111. R. J. P. Harvey, Notes on the American Group Report, 18 May 1945, UKNA T162/1026. This is elaborated in the author’s Ph.D. dissertation.

112. Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, 302–12; Laborie, “Fragile Links,” 318–20.