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⁸ This is only ‘potentially’ because the sociological study of social policy innovation is still in its infancy. Indeed two recent collections of case studies in this area rely heavily on a political science analysis: Hall, Phoebe, Land, Hilary, Parker, R. A., Webb, Adrian, Change, Choice and Conflict in Social Policy, London: Heinemann, 1975Google Scholar; Donnison, David et al. , Social Policy and Administration Revisited, National Institute for Social Work Social Services Library, London: Allen & Unwin, 1975Google Scholar, although chapter 12 in the latter provide a more sociological view of social policy innovation (pp. 293–300).

⁹ See Clark, D. H., Social Therapy in Psychiatry, Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1974Google Scholar; Jones, M., Social Psychiatry, London: Tavistock, 1952Google Scholar; Jones, M., Social Psychiatry, London: Thomas, 1962.Google ScholarPubMed

¹⁰ See the next section.

¹¹ Belknap, I., Human Problems of a State Mental Hospital, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956Google Scholar; Stanton, A. and Schwartz, M., The Mental Hospital, New York: Basic Books, 1954.Google Scholar

¹² Drawn from Rapoport, R. N., Community as Doctor, London: Tavistock, 1960.Google Scholar

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¹⁶ See N. P. Manning, ‘Values and Practice in the therapeutic community’, Human Relations, forthcoming.

¹⁷ Much of this paragraph draws on Jones, K., A History of the Mental Health Services, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972.Google Scholar

¹⁸ This commission was sponsored by the Lancet as a fact-finding study of ‘The Care and Cure of the Insane’, under the direction of Dr Mortimer Granville. See Jones, K., op. cit., pp. 166–7.Google Scholar

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³⁵ Difficulties surrounding this problem are discussed in N. P. Manning, ‘Evaluating the Therapeutic Community’, Social Science and Medicine, forthcoming.

³⁶ For example, Medawar, P. B., Induction and Intuition in Scientific Thought, London: Methuen, 1969.Google Scholar

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³⁹ This, as has been noted, included American connections. Interestingly the Americans did not develop the therapeutic community concept independently, which supports the interpretation that the catalytic impact of the war in Britain was an essential addition to an unsatisfactory hospital System and social science knowledge, both of which the Americans had. Indeed the Americans attempted hospital reforms after careful research, rather than innovating ‘on the run’, which resulted in more limited though broader changes.

⁴⁰ Rees, (1945, op. cit.)Google Scholar records that initially there was considerable hostility to psychiatrists from other army personnel; but that success in tackling man-management problems earned the Army Psychiatric Services grudging acceptance.

⁴¹ See Banks, J. A., The Sociology of Social Movements, London: Macmillan, 1972, p. 31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴² See 2nd Report of the Standing Committee of the Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Disabled Persans, London: HMSO, 1949Google Scholar (Chainnan, Sir H. Wiles).

⁴³ Op. cit.

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⁴⁵ To separate. technique and values does not imply that technical development is valuefree, for the psychiatrist in attempting to normalize the abnormal immediately enters the realm of values, whatever his technique. Rather, to separate the technical from associated values merely means that the former shares the conventional wisdom of psychiatry.

⁴⁶ Modified from Wilkinson, P., Social Movements, London: Pall Mall Press, 1971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁸ Rapoport, op. cit.

⁴⁹ Manning, in Social Science and Medicine, op. cit.

⁵⁰ Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W. and Schachter, S., When Prophecy Fails, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵¹ Paddington Day Hospital.

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⁵⁵ A common feature noted by Smelser, , op. cit.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ The Association of Therapeutic Communities. Differentiation of goals and the formation of an Association have again been noted by King, C. W., Social Movements in the United States, New York: Random House, 1965.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Smelser, , op. cit.Google Scholar; King, , op. cit.Google Scholar; Dawson, C. and Gettys, W. E., An Introduction to Sociology, New York: Ronald Press, 1948.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ From unpublished data on referrals to Henderson Hospital.

⁶⁰ Since the National Health Service reorganization the Area Health Authority has been pressing for evidence which proves its efficacy, and justifies its high staff-patient ratio. However the evaluation of therapeutic community practice presents certain problems: it is multi-dimensional, and research is often designed to investigate single dimensions; it combines efforts at both intra-psychic and behavioural change; most previous studies in this area have focused on process rather than outcome; even then outcome success is only one goal amongst many which have been and continue to change. For these reasons orthodox experimental designs do not work, and a more eclectic, flexible approach must be pursued. See for example, Clarke, R. V. G. and Cornish, D. B., The Controlled Trial in Institutional Research, London: HMSO, 1972.Google Scholar It is no doubt of significance for the relative decline of the therapeutic community that this evaluative work has not yet been adequately tackled.

⁶¹ Gralnick, A., The Psychiatric Hospital as a Therapeutic Instrument, New York: Brunner/ Mazel, 1969, pp. 91–2.Google Scholar