This article is based on a paper read at the Fifth Annual Conference of the Australian Association for the study of Religions held on 11–15 May 1980 at the Australian National University.

¹ Earlier studies on the Darul Islam rebellion have been written by Indonesians as well as foreign scholars. In this paper mention will be made of publications that are regarded as directly relevant to this work: Pinardi, , Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewiryo (Jakarta: Badan Penerbit Aryoguno, 1964)Google Scholar. Sjarifuddin, Amak, Kisah Kartosoewirjo dan Menyerahnja (Surabaya: Grip, 1963)Google Scholar. Sukarjo, , Sedikit tentang Pemberontakan Darul Islam di Jawa (Skripsi Universitas Gajah Mada, 1965)Google Scholar. Boland, B. J., The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia (The Hague: Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk lnstituut voor Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde, Vol. LIX, 1971)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. van Niewenhuijze, C.A.O., Aspects of Islam in Post-Colonial Indonesia (The Hague: W. van Hoeve Ltd., 1958)Google Scholar. Idem, “The Darul Islam Movement in West Java”, Pacific Affairs XXIII (1950): 169–83. Jackson, K.D., “Traditional Authority and National Integration: The Darul Islam Rebellion in West Java” (Ph.D., Massachussetts Institute of Technology, 1971)Google Scholar. See also Jackson's, article “Participation in Rebellion: The Darul Islam in West Java”, in Political Participation in Modem Indonesia, ed. Liddle, R. William (Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, Monograph Series No. 19,1973), pp. 12–57Google Scholar. Hiroko, Horikoshi, “The Darul Islam Movement in West Java (1948–62): An Experience in the Historical Process”, Indonesia 20 (Oct. 1975): 59–86Google Scholar.

² On the development of the Ahmadiyah in Indonesia, see Blood, Margaret, “The Ahmadiyah in Indonesia: Its Early History and Contribution to Islam in the Archipelago” (A.N.U. Department of Indonesian Languages and Literatures, Honours Sub-Thesis, 1974), p. 68.Google Scholar

³ On the decline of the Sarekat Islam as an Islamic political movement, see Horikoshi, “The Darul Islam Movement”, pp. 61–62. See also Noer, Deliar, The Modernist Muslim Movement in Indonesia 1900–1942 (Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 125–26.Google Scholar

⁴ Kartosoewiryo, S.M., Sikap Hidjrah P.S.I.I.(ditetapkan oleh Madjlis Tahkim Partij Sjarikat Islam Indonesia ke 22, tjetak pertama 1936), Vol. 1, pp. 21–22Google Scholar.

⁵ Ibid., p. 46. See also Deliar Noer, The Modernist Muslim Movement, pp. 142–48.

⁶ Pinardi, Sekarmadji, pp. 26–28. See also Deliar Noer, The Modernist Muslim Movement, pp. 147–48.

⁷ On the role of the Suffah Institute, see Pinardi, Sekarmadji, pp. 26–27; see also Deliar Noer, The Modernist Muslim Movement, pp. 148–49.

⁸ Wawancara dengan Eks Tokoh D.I. (Hadji Zainal Abidin, a typed manuscript issued by the Siliwangi Regional Army Command, 18 Jan. 1971).

⁹ Benda, Harry J., The Crescent and the Rising Sun (The Hague: Van Hoeve, 1958), pp. 259 ff.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Ibid., p. 285, n. 57. See also C.A.O. van Niewenhuijze, “The Darul Islam Movement”, pp. 164–84.

¹¹ Kartosuwiryo, S.M., Haluan Politik Islam (Malangbong: Dewan Penerangan Masjumi Daerah Priangan, 1946), p. 8.Google Scholar

¹² Ibid., pp. 8–9.

¹³ On the rise of Masjumi between 1943–1944, see Benda, Crescent, pp. 150–68.

¹⁴ A document of the Algemene Secretarie (General Secretariat), Box XXV, No. 33, entitled “Perslah Ringkas Moe'tamar Oemat Islam Indonesia” (A Brief Report on the Congress of the Indonesian Islamic Community). The first Congress of the Masjumi was held on 7 and 8 Nov. 1945 in the Balai Mu'allimin (Teachers' Hall) in Ketanggungan, Jogyakarta. The Congress had established the Dewan Partai (Party Council) or the Majlis Syuro (Consultative Council) of the party, which consisted of the following Islamic leaders: General Chairman (Ketua Umum) K.H. Hasjim Asj'ari; Chairman (Ketua) Ki Bagus Hadikusumo: First Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda) K.H.A. Wachid Hasjim; Second Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda II) Kasman Singodimedjo LL.M. The members of the Majlis Sjuro were K.H. Achmad Sanusi, K.H. Abdul Halim, K.H.R. Adnan, K.H. Agus Salim, Shaikh Jamil Jambek of Bukittinggi, and many others. The Party Executive (Lajnah Tanfidziyah) contained the following people: Chairman (Ketua) Dr Soekiman; First Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda 1) R. Abikoesno Tjokrosoejosa; Second Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda II) Kasman Singodimedjo LL.M. The members of the Majlis Sjuro were K.H. Achmad Sanusi, K.H. Abdul Halim, K.H.R. Adnan, K.H. Agus Salim, Shaikh Jamil Jambek of Bukittinggi, and many others. The Party Executive (Lajnah Tanfidziyah) contained the following people: Chairman (Ketua) Dr Soekiman; First Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda I) R. Abikoesno Tjokrosoejosa; Second Deputy Chairman (Ketua Muda II) Wali Alfatah; First Secretary (Panitera I) S.M. Kartosuwiryo; and Second Secretary (Panitera II) Prawoto Mangkoesasmito. Harsono Tjokroaminoto was head of youth affairs and H. Hasjim was head of the Hizbullah. The communications section was in the hands of Muhammad Roem, Jusuf Wibisono, Zainal Arifin, and Mohammad Natsir. As the Office of the Central Leadership of the Masjumi was located in Jogyakarta, Central Java, the Party appointed R. Abikoesno Tjokrosoejoso as its representative in Jakarta.

¹⁵ The first congress of the Masjumi party passed important resolutions concerning the formation of the Barisan Sabilullah (Troop for the Holy War of Allah), the intensification of the preparation of the Islamic community for the Holy War (Berjihad fi Sabilillah), the strengthening of the lines of defence of the Indonesian State through various efforts laid down by the Islamic religion, and the adjustment of the structure and quality of the Masjumi as the centre of the Indonesian Islamic Community in order to intensify and lead the struggle of this community. Algemene Secretarie, Box XXV, No. 33, “Perslah Ringkas Mu'tamar Umat Islam Indonesia”.

¹⁶ See Kartosuwiryo's files of interrogation called: Berita Atjara Interogasi (Report on Interrogation) III, issued by the Vlth Regional Military Command of the Siliwangi Division, June 1962. He said: “Tahun 1946. Pada kira-kira tahun itu didalam Kabinet Amir Sjarifudin pernah saya ditawari kedudukan sebagai Menteri Muda Pertahanan (Menteri dirangkap oleh Amir sendiri), Tawaran mana pada waktu itu terpaksa tidak saya terima berhubung kesibukan-kesibukan saya didalam partai”.

¹⁷ Berita Atjara Interogasi III, p. 3.

¹⁸ The material that deals with the formation of the Majlis Umat Islam (Council of Islamic Community) in West Java was based on a document written in Dutch and codified as: Procureur General (Attorney General) = PG No. 522, Majlis Umat Islam, pp. 25–32.

¹⁹ Pedoman Dharma Bakti Vol. 1, Negara Islam Indonesia, MaklumatNo. 3: 6–8.

²⁰ Pedoman Dharma Bakti Vol. 1, Negara Islam Indonesia, Maklumat No. 5: 11.

²¹ Pinardi, Sekarmadji, p. 59.

²² Ibid., p. 50. See also Berita Atjara Interogasi IV, p. 5.

²³ Berita Atjara Interogasi IV, p. 5. Kartosuwiryo here stated as follows: “The Ministry of Finance was headed by Udin Kartasasmita who died and later was succeeded by Djadja Soedjadi alias Widjaja. The Ministry of Information was headed by Toha Arsjad who died in 1950–51. The Defence Ministry was led by Raden O. Oni alias R. Oni Quital who died in 1952–53. The Ministry for Justice was headed by Hadji Godjali Tusi alias Chadimudin who died together with R.O. Oni. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs and Home Affairs were under Sanusi Partawidjaja who died in 1960.”

²⁴ The Kanun Azasi (Constitution) of the Negara Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic State) consists of a Muqaddimah (Introduction) and is followed by Chapters (Bab-Bab) dealing with a number of items. Chapter I says: “The Indonesian Islamic State is one that has been granted as a gift by Allah to the Indonesian nation and it is in the form of a Republic [jumhuriyah].” The Islamic Syari'a (Law) is guaranteed by the state to be practiced for the Islamic community and the Constitution states explicitly that the state would give opportunities to followers of other religions to perform their own religious obligations. The Qur'an and Hadith form the highest sources of Islamic Laws of the state. The Majlis Syuro (Parliament) is the highest legislative body of the state and in time of emergency the right of the Majlis Syuro could be transferred to the Imam (Leader) and the Dewan Imamah (Cabinet). Chapter II deals with basic regulations concerning membership, sessions, and quorum of the Majlis Syuro. Chapter III deals with the Dewan Syuro, which is the executive body of the Majlis Syuro. Its function is to carry out decisions of the Majlis Syuro in meetings with the Government. Chapter IV is concerned with the power of the State. The Imam (leader) of the Indonesian Islamic State holds the power of government in accordance with the Constitution (Kanun Azasi). The Imam has power to make laws with the agreement of the Majlis Syuro. The Imam should be an Indonesian by birth, a Muslim, and should be loyal to Allah and His Messenger. He is elected by the Majlis Syuro by a majority vote of at least two thirds of all members. The following chapters deal with the Dewan Fatwa (Advisory Council), the Dewan Imamah (Cabinet), and Finance, Laws and Justice, Indonesian Citizenship, Defence, Education, and Economy of the country. The Constitution was formulated and signed by the Dewan Imamah, which consisted of the following persons: S.M. Kartosoewiryo (Imam and Head of Defence), Sanusi Partawidjaja (Head of Ministry for Home Affairs and Finance), K.H. Godjali Tusi (Head of Justice Ministry), Thoha Arsjad (Head of Information Ministry), Kamran and R. Oni as members of the Dewan Imamah. See “Kanun Azasi Negara Islam Indonesia”, in Boland, The Struggle of Islam, pp. 256–63.

²⁵ Document No. 177, Ks 3–0–11, in Indonesian on Darul Islam, 16.

²⁶ Kartosuwiryo himself admitted during his interrogation by the military authority in 24 June 1962 that “the idea of establishing an Indonesian Islamic state in fact was already existent since the Dutch colonial time in my own thinking as well as in the PSSI ideology, which was later perpetuated by the Masjumi during the Japanese occupation and the time of independent Republic of Indonesia. My own ideology was put into practice with the proclamation of the Indonesian Islamic State (Negara Islam Indonesia) on 7 August 1949.”

²⁷ See Algemene Secretarie, Document No. 620, “Een Rapport over de Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia” (Report on the PSII), p. 24. See also Boland, The Struggle of Islam, pp. 7–39.

²⁸ Kartosoewiryo, Haluan Politik Islam, p. 16.

²⁹ Wawancara dengan Eks Tokoh D.I. (Interviews with former D.I. Personalities, 12 June 1971, by A.J.).

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Ibid., by Z.A.

³² Ibid., by Sy. H.

³³ He said: “Lingkungan ayah saya tidak mempercayai Imam Mahdi. Hal ini hanya mistik saja. Keberanian kami berjuang tidaklah didasarkan kepada Imam Mahdi ini, tetapi semata-mata karena keinsyafan kami akan berbakti kepada tuhan. Masalah Imam Mahdi ini juga berhubungan dengan Pak Karto. Beliau sendiri juga tidak percaya kepada Imam Mahdi ini. Tetapi dipergunakan juga sekedar untuk memperkuat semangat jihad. Menurut pendapat saya, Pak Karto itu bersih, artinya tidak mempercayai hal-hal mistik.”

³⁴ Berita Atjara Interogasi II, p.2.

³⁵ Ibid. S.M. Kartosuwiryo said here as follows: “Feit yang telah terjadi itu bagi saya tidak mempunyai arti apa-apa, kecuali bahwa itu merupakan keagungan Allah yang telah digambarkan kepada saya.” New spelling is mine.

³⁶ Kartosoewiryo, Haluan Politik Islam, p. 42.

³⁷ The Sundanese term for bai'at (Ar. — vow of allegiance) is bengat.

³⁸ Trimingham, Spencer, The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford, 1971), p. 137Google Scholar.

³⁹ Ibid., pp. 186–87.

⁴⁰ The Indonesian text of the bai'at is found in the “Lampiran of the Maklumat Komandemen Tertinggi No. 6” (Attachment to the announcement of the Supreme Command No. 6), Pedoman Dharma Bakti, 10 Sept. 1950, pp. 47–48.

⁴¹ Boland, The Struggle of Islam, p. 57.

⁴² Kahin, G.Mc.T., Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1952), p. 331Google Scholar.

⁴³ Goto Kenichi, Local Politics in Indonesia, The Case of West Java (Dec. 1971), p. 33.

⁴⁴ The Indonesian text of the two letters sent to President Soekarno is found in Boland, The Struggle of Islam, Appendices II and III, pp. 244–55.

⁴⁵ “Manifest Politik Negara Islam Indonesia No. V/7”, I. Huda, which is a pseudonym of S.M. Kartosuwiryo, is found in Pedoman Dharma Bakti II (1955): 315–16, where it is remarked as follows: “Kedua nota rahasia ini sudah diterima oleh masing-masing mustahiqnya, tapi belum pernah mendapat balasan apapun dari pihak R.I. Melainkan hanya dengan serangan yang hebat dahsyat, dengan hasutan yang jahat, dengan blokade politik, militer, ekonomi dll., yang boleh diharapkan-sepanjang rencana Abu-jahal dan Abu-lahab Indonesia: membunuh Negara Islam Indonesia, Agama Islam dan Ummat Islam bangsa Indonesia seluruhnya……”.

⁴⁶ Berita Atjara Interogasi IV, p. 2. Here S.M. Kartosuwiryo stated as follows: “Surat jawaban saya waktu itu berisi penolakan dari ajakannya, kerana saya anggap ajakan itu tidak ada artinya selama masih terus saja adanya serangan militer dan kanonnade yang terjadi pada waktu itu.”

⁴⁷ “Manifest Politik”, p. 316.

⁴⁸ Pikiran Rakyat, 7 June 1962.

⁴⁹ Ibid.

⁵⁰ Ibid., 6 June 1962.

⁵¹ Ibid., 8 June 1962.

⁵² Pikiran Rakyat, 8 June 1962.

⁵³ Pinardi, Sekarmadji, p. 16.

⁵⁴ Ibid., p. 18.

⁵⁵ “Kartosoewiryo dan lima orang kakitangannya masing masing telah manjalani hukuman mati secara tembak di suatu tempat di Indonesia.” Ibid., p. 18.