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⁸ Includin g FELDA and some RISDA schemes - see below.

⁹ Jackson, J. C., “Towards an Understanding of Plantation Agriculture”, Area 4 (1969): 36–41.Google Scholar

¹⁰ In 1958, Wickizer stated “the plantation system is inherently an efficient form of organization for production of many tropical crops. If and when … newer political entities grow more prosperous and feel greater security in their autonomy, the plantation system may come to be viewed more favourably than it has been in recent years.” (Wickizer, V. D., “The Plantation System in the Development of Tropical Economies”, Journal of Farm Economics 40 (1958): 64–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar). This situation may well be coming about in Malaysia.

¹¹ Higman, B. W., “Plantations and Typological Problems in Geography”, Australian Geographer 11 (1969): 192–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Courtenay, P. P., “An Approach to the Definition of the Plantation”, Geographica Polonica 19 (1970): 81–91Google Scholar; Courtenay, P. P., Plantation Agriculture, 2nd ed. (London, 1979)Google Scholar.

¹² The fact that some plantations may operate inefficiently does not invalidate the general argument.

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²⁴ Excluding tea and coconuts, which are not included in subsequent references to plantation area in this paper. In 1975, these minor plantation crops occupied almost 20, 000 ha.

²⁵ The “loss” of estate area by subdivision was partly compensated for by some new planting on reserve lands by “non-subdivided” estates. It is also likely that many subdivisions remained above the 40 ha/100 acre statistical threshold and thus technically remained plantations. This undoubtedly contributed t o the change in size distribution mentioned earlier.

²⁶ The changes briefly summarized in these paragraphs are examined in more detail in Courtenay, P. P., “Some Trends in the Malaysian Plantation Sector, 1963–1973”, in Issues in Malaysian Development, ed. Jackson, J. C. and Rudner, Martin (1979)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Lim, op. cit.

²⁸ Production from rubber estates reached a peak of 673, 600 tons in 1973, from which there has since been a slight decline.

²⁹ This tonnage was produced by factories on estates. A further 482, 667 tons were produced by factories off estates. Much of the fruit for this production would have originated on estates whose yielding oil palm area was as yet too small to support their own factory.

³⁰ Including Japanese and Singaporean as well as European.

³¹ Lim, op. cit.

³² The east coast states were arguing for rubber planting as a key to regional economic development in the early 1960s when the official insistence was that rural areas should be relieved of their dependence oh rubber (Rudner, op. cit. ).

³³ Drabble, op. cit.

³⁴ Wong, F. T., The Present Land Use of Kedah (Kuala Lumpur, 1970).Google Scholar

³⁵ As a sampling frame, this list proved to be somewhat deficient since the 1975 Rubber Statistics Handbook lists 347 estates in the three states (301 in Kedah and Perlis, 46 in Pinang). It may be that the mailing addresses, the only initial indicators of location, may in some instances have been outside the three states.

³⁶ Department of Statistics, 1970 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1972).Google ScholarPubMed

³⁷ Jacoby, E. H., Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia (London, 1961).Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid.

³⁹ Manshard, W., Tropical Agriculture (London, 1974).Google Scholar

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⁴² Md. Nor Abdullah, “Agricultural Institutions: The Role of RISDA”, Malaysian Economic Association, Second Malaysian Economic Convention (1974).

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⁴⁶ Md. Nor, op. cit.

⁴⁷ Sin, Tan Siew, Chairman Sime Darby Holdings, reported in Far Eastern Economic Review, no. 37 (15 Sept. 1978).Google Scholar