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Allies or Antagonists? Philanthropic Reformers and Business Reformers in the Progressive Era1
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 January 2012
Extract
In the early twentieth century, amid heightening industrial tensions, many large corporations introduced welfare work to co-opt their employees' loyalties and pacify public anger. Many of the techniques and ideas of what became known as “welfare capitalism” were adapted from charity aid and settlement work. Over time, however, labor relations moved from being identified as a social reform issue—bound up with other issues on which the new profession of social work concentrated—to a business management prerogative. This article argues that professionalization played a significant role in these developments. Philanthropic reformers initially claimed welfare work as part of their professional agenda. However, in the second decade of the century, the social work profession began to narrow its field of operations. As social work's ambivalent claims on the factory and shop floor atrophied, business schools were introducing elements of industrial social work into their new management curriculums. The burgeoning field of professional labor management incorporated welfare work as one of its essential tools.
- Type
- Essays
- Information
- The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era , Volume 11 , Issue 1 , January 2012 , pp. 71 - 117
- Copyright
- Copyright © Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2012
Footnotes
1
The author thanks the anonymous reviewers for their insightful critiques of an earlier draft of this article. I am also indebted to David Brody and fellow historians at the long-past Justice at Work Conference in his honor who offered valuable feedback on a very preliminary version of this paper.
References
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24 Beeks served as assistant secretary to the Chicago Civic Federation (CCF), precursor to the NCF. The CCF had been established to develop practical solutions to the chaos of the Great Depression of the 1890s. Its founding members included, among others, Jane Addams, Lyman Gage, Mrs. Charles Henrotin, Bertha Palmer, Albion Small, and Graham Taylor. On Addams's support for Beeks's move to International Harvester, Ozanne, Robert, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester (Madison, 1967), 32Google Scholar; On Southall, Delton, Jennifer, Racial Integration in Corporate America, 1940–1990 (New York, 2009), 134CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Addams seems to have played a similar role in at least one other case. See “Inspect Harvest Mills,” New York Times, Aug. 23, 1912, 10, which identifies International Harvester's welfare manager Mary Goss as a “co-worker” of Jane AddamsGoogle Scholar.
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31 Although some social investigators did go undercover in factories and shops, these were intentionally short-term stints, not long-term commitments.
32 The American Institute of Social Service initially went by the name of the League for Social Service.
33 Early issues of Social Service covered multiple topics. The magazine moved to a one-topic-per-month format with the March 1903 issue, titled “Village Improvement Number.” A sampling includes: “Crime and Criminology,” June 1903; “Fresh Air Charities,” July 1903; “Boys Clubs and Associations,” Sept. 1903; “Social Secretary Number,” July 1904; “Proposed Solutions of the Drink Problem,” Jan. 1905; “Social Settlements,” Apr. 1905. Josiah Strong's writings similarly projected a broad social reform agenda. Addressing occupational standards, Strong credited state and employer actions as compatible and equally essential to solving the labor problem. Strong, Josiah, Studies in Social Progress in the Gospel of the Kingdom (New York, 1911), 136–38Google Scholar.
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60 In addition to the New York School of Philanthropy and the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, the Russell Sage Foundation granted funds to the Simmons School of Social Work and to the St. Louis School of Philanthropy, which was established in 1907. The significance of this funding is apparent in records of the Chicago school. The foundation's $7,500 in support in 1908 was more than twice the school's $3,025 operating budget. “Memorandum for Research Departments of Schools by the Director of Russell Sage Foundation, December 1, 1909,” Russell Sage: Social Research and Social Action in America, 1907–1947, section 220-m-1.1, microfiche, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago (hereafter UC); “Memoranda: The Institute of Social Science 1908,” folder 1906–1908, box 19, Chicago Commons Collection, CHS.
61 “Social Secretary Number,” Social Service, July 1904Google Scholar. Most of the articles in this issue seem to reproduce, without credit, talks given at the NCF's National Conference on Welfare Work, the first such conference in the nation. The newly established NCF Welfare Department challenged the AISS's claim to be the national clearinghouse for welfare work. Probably as a consequence, this July 1904 issue of Social Service does not mention the NCF or its founding of an employer Welfare Department.
62 Italics added. The School of Philanthropy, Second Year 1904–05, 2, folder: Early Annual Reports, 1898–1899, 1902, 1904, New York School of Philanthropy collection, Columbia University (hereafter NYSP-CU).
63 Italics added. “Retrospect and Prospects by the Warden,” folder: Trustees Minutes 1916–1924, box 19, Chicago Commons Collection, CHS.
64 Italics added. “Chicago Institute of Social Science…Courses for the Fourth Year…,” folder 8, Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy collection, Special Collections, Regenstein Library, University of Chicago (hereafter CSCP-UC).
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66 “Minutes of Conferences,” folder 4, box 315, NCF; “Chicago Institute of Social Science…Courses for the Spring Quarter, 1906,” folder 8, CSCP-UC.
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70 Russell Sage: Social Research and Social Action in America: 1907–1947, microfiche, section 220-M-1.2, 2, UC; Pratt, E.E. and Talbot, Winthrop, “Preliminary Directory of Firms Who Have Established Methods of Industrial Betterment,” Human Engineering, Apr. 1911, 95–100Google Scholar; “Annual Report of the Director for year ending Sept. 30, 1912,” folder: New York School of Philanthropy, Director/Annual Reports, 1906–14; “Examination Course #40,” Historical File, 1899–1936, NYSP-CU.
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72 “Spring Quarter Courses, 1907,” folder 8, CSCP-UC.
73 Trustees' Minutes, 1894–1936, folder: 1906–1908, box 19, Chicago Commons Collection, CHS.
74 When Taylor applied for funding from the Russell Sage Foundation in spring 1907, he included training in welfare work as one of his school's three goals. Graham Taylor to Robert DeForest, Apr. 18, 1907, folder: 1906–1908, box 19, Chicago Commons Collection, CHS; “Expert Training for Social Work,” 1908–1909, folder 9, CSCP-UC.
75 “Year Books and Bulletins,” July 1911–Apr. 1913 and July 1913–Jan. 1915, box 1, Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, Graham Taylor Papers, Newberry Library. In 1908 the Russell Sage Foundation began awarding thousands of dollars in grants to promote uniform curriculum and social investigation research across the major schools of social work. All the schools readily accepted these funds, which had the intended effect of raising the profile of social investigation and publication. One likely consequence was that other, less directly curricular topics suffered as a consequence.
76 The school seems to have been on the verge of bankruptcy throughout its independent existence. Although Russell Sage funding allowed it to reorganize and expand its research agenda in 1908, it seems to have relied on a handful of wealthy donors for the substantial portion of its operating funds. Rosenwald and Crane were the largest of these donors, with each giving $4,000 a year in quarterly installments through much of the early 1910s, with a promise to increase this to $10,000 annually between 1916 and 1919. See for example, [Rosenwald] to Graham Taylor, Sept. 19, 1910 and Dec. 3, 1912, folder 16, box 7; A.K. Maynard to Mr. Graves, Oct. 25, 1916 and [Taylor] to Mr. Charles Crane, Aug. 22, 1916, folder 17, box 7, Julius Rosenwald Papers, UC.
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84 Italics added. Bulletin, New York School of Social Work, Oct. 1919, NYSP-CU.
85 “Alumni Bulletin,” 1920, vol. 23, no. 4, folder: “Alumni Bulletins,” 1920–1934, box 2, NYSP-CU.
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91 “Announcements: College of Commerce and Administration, May 1914,” and “Bulletin of Information: Training for Philanthropic Service,” June 1916, University Publications, UC.
92 Diner, A City and Its Universities, 7–8.
93 Ibid., 127.
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99 Mandell, The Corporation as Family, ch. 7; Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy, ch. 3–6.
100 Some of the large American corporations that adopted welfare work seem to have pursued a similar, voluntarist adoption of social justice labor practices when they introduced fair employment programs a half-century later in the 1940s and 1950s. See Delton, Racial Integration in Corporate America.