The author is grateful to Eileen Boris, Felicia Kornbluh, Lisa Levenstein, and Jennifer Mittlestadt for their helpful readings and suggestions.

¹ Skocpol, Theda, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The book won multiple awards: the 1993 Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award from the American Political Science Association, the 1993 David Greenstone Book Prize from the Politics and History Section of the American Political Science Association, a Distinguished Contribution to Scholarship Book Award from the Political Sociology Section of the American Sociological Association, the 1993 Ralph Waldo Emerson Award from the Phi Beta Kappa Society, and the 1993 Allan Sharlin Memorial Award from the Social Science History Association. It also won the 2013 Aaron Wildavsky Enduring Contribution Award from the Public Policy Section of the American Political Science Association. See http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674717664.

² More recently, Irwin Garfinkel, Lee Rainwater, and Timothy Smeeding made a case for including public education as part of the welfare state, which also places the United States at the forefront of welfare state development. Wealth and Welfare States: Is America a Laggard or a Leader? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

³ Quoted in Hacker, Jacob S., “Bringing the Welfare State Back In: The Promise (and Perils) of the New Social Welfare History,” Journal of Policy History 17:1 (Jan. 2005): 125Google Scholar.

⁴ Fraser, Steve and Gerstle, Gary, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990)Google Scholar. Skocpol's analysis has had a broad scholarly impact beyond U.S. history; its insights have influenced sociologists and political scientists as well as historians of state development and policy making across the globe. For a discussion of some of these broader impacts, see Skocpol, Theda, “Bringing the State Back In: Retrospect and Prospect,” Scandinavian Political Studies 31:2 (2008): 109–24Google Scholar.

⁵ Review by Elshtain, Jean Bethke, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 534 (July 1994): 196Google Scholar; Katz, Michael B., “Roads Not Taken: Failed Alternatives for American Social Welfare,” Contemporary Sociology 22:6 (Nov. 1993): 775Google Scholar; review by Folbre, Nancy, Theory and Society 24:6 (Dec. 1995): 869Google Scholar; review by Mohr, John, American Journal of Sociology 100:1 (July 1994): 279CrossRefGoogle Scholar; review by Rodgers, Daniel T., Journal of Economic History 53:3 (Sept. 1993): 697Google Scholar; review by Sapiro, Virginia, Political Science Quarterly 108:4 (Winter 1993–94): 739Google Scholar; review by Stern, Mark, Social History 19:2 (May 1994): 274Google Scholar; Mohr review, 279.

⁶ I will not engage directly or deeply with the prodigious field of comparative welfare states.

⁷ Robert D. Johnston cites Protecting Soldiers and Mothers as a key marker in “re-democratizing the Progressive Era.” Johnson, Robert D., “Re-Democratizing the Progressive Era: The Politics of Progressive Era Political Historiography,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 1:1 (Jan. 2002): 68–92Google Scholar.

⁸ Skocpol, Theda, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979)Google Scholar; Showronek, Stephen, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Evans, Peter B., Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, and Skocpol, Theda, Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

⁹ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 42–44, 58.

¹⁰ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 42–44.

¹¹ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 52.

¹² Laura Jensen later argued that well before the Civil War, the federal government utilized social entitlements in the form of pensions and land to recruit soldiers and armed settlers to expand and protect the country's growing continental empire. “By the time the Civil War began,” Jensen wrote, “the United States had a firmly established history of national level social provision rooted in the entitlement of certain categories of Americans who served the purposes of the state as it sought to claim, protect, and expand its sovereignty over an immense portion of the North American continent” (205). Jensen, Laura, Patriots, Settlers, and the Origins of American Social Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

¹³ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 101.

¹⁴ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 310. Eli Shari and Laura Salisbury argue that Southern political elites distributed Confederate pensions in a similar way, as a means to win competitive political advantage. Shari, Eli and Salisbury, Laura, “Patronage Politics and the Development of the Welfare State: Confederate Pensions in the American South,” Journal of Economic History 76:4 (Dec. 2016): 1078–1112Google Scholar.

¹⁵ Ann Shola Orloff noted that “historical institutionalism and other modes of historical social science” share “constructivist proclivities with feminist analysis … Both promote analyses that are time and place specific rather than seeking general laws, both take a denaturalizing and contingent view of political identities and goals, and both share at least some attachment to egalitarian, or even emancipatory, politics.” Orloff, Ann Shola, “Gendering the Comparative Analysis of Welfare States: An Unfinished Agenda,” Sociological Theory 27:3 (Sept. 2009): 319–20Google Scholar.

¹⁶ A classic example of the Marxist approach is Piven, Frances Fox and Cloward, Richard A., Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971)Google Scholar. For examples of analyses that posit the welfare state as a tool of patriarchy, see Abramovitz, Mimi, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Jensen, Jane, “Gender and Reproduction: Or, Babies and the State,” Studies in Political Economy 20 (1986): 9–45Google Scholar; Brown, Carol, “Mothers, Fathers, and Children: From Private to Public Patriarchy” in Women and Revolution, ed. Sargent, L. (Boston: South End Press, 1981)Google Scholar; and McIntosh, Mary, “The State and the Oppression of Women” in Feminism and Materialism, eds. Kuhn, A. and Wolpe, A. (New York: Routledge, 1978)Google Scholar. See also Gordon, Linda, “What Does Welfare Regulate? A Review Essay on the Writings of Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward,” Social Research 55:4 (Winter 1988): 609–30Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Review by Stern, Mark, Social History 19:2 (May 1994): 274Google Scholar; Review by Mohr, John, American Journal of Sociology 100:1 (July 1994): 27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, x.

¹⁹ Review by Levine, Rhonda F., Gender and Society 8:4 (Dec. 1994): 633Google Scholar; Scott, Ann Firor, “Discovering Women,” Contemporary Sociology 22:6 (Nov. 1993): 778Google Scholar.

²⁰ Baker, Paula, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89 (June 1984): 620–47Google Scholar; Lebsock, Suzanne, The Free Women of Petersburg: Status and Culture in a Southern Town, 1784–1860 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984)Google Scholar; Hewitt, Nancy A., Women's Activism and Social Change: Rochester, New York, 1822–1872 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; Stansell, Christine, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1798–1860 (New York: Knopf, 1986)Google Scholar; Sapiro, Virginia, “The Gender Basis of American Social Policy,” Political Science Quarterly 101:2 (1986): 221–38Google Scholar; Ginzberg, Lori D., Women and the Work of Benevolence: Morality, Politics, and Class in the 19th Century United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Gordon, Linda, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Muncy, Robyn, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)Google Scholar; Baker, Paula, The Moral Framework of Public Life: Gender, Politics, and the State in Rural New York, 1870–1930 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

²¹ Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion.

²² Review by Sapiro, Virginia, Political Science Quarterly 108:4 (Winter 1993–94): 739Google Scholar. “Path-breaking work in the 1970s and 1980s established that gender is (in part) constituted by systems of social provision and regulation and, in turn, shapes them.” Orloff, Ann Shola, “Gendering the Comparative Analysis of Welfare States: An Unfinished Agenda,” Sociological Theory 27:3 (Sept. 2009): 318Google Scholar. See, for example, essays collected in Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State, and Welfare; Abramovitz, Mimi, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Jensen, Jane, “Gender and Reproduction: Or, Babies and the State,” Studies in Political Economy 20 (1986): 9–45Google Scholar; Brown, Carol, “Mothers, Fathers, and Children: From Private to Public Patriarchy” in Women and Revolution, ed. Sargent, L. (Boston: South End Press, 1981)Google Scholar; Paula Baker, The Moral Framework of Public Life.

²³ A JSTOR search finds twenty-one reviews of Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, eleven for Mink's Wages of Motherhood, and thirteen for Ladd-Taylor's Mother-Work. Mink and Ladd-Taylor were reviewed primarily in history journals and journals specializing in feminist scholarship, while Skocpol's book received broad attention from journals across social science disciplines.

²⁴ Scholars began to use the term maternalism in the 1990s as a central construct in explaining women's role in state-building during the Progressive Era. An early definition from Seth Koven and Sonya Michel defines as maternalist “ideologies that exalted women's capacity to mother and extended to society as a whole the values of care, nurturance, and morality.” Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, “Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880–1920,” American Historical Review 95:4 (Oct. 1990): 1079Google Scholar.

²⁵ Mink, Gwendolyn, The Wages of Motherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917–1942 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), 73Google Scholar.

²⁶ Skocpol offered several incisive critiques of Mink's book but did not explain what she meant by “new-fangled feminist welfare history.” Skocpol, Theda, “The Trouble with Welfare,” Reviews in American History 24:4 (Dec. 1996): 651Google Scholar. Comparative studies of welfare state development suggest that high levels of immigration and elite racial ideology explains the lack of pronatalist policies in the United States, compared with European nations with declining birth rates and relatively homogeneous populations. Review by Folbre, Nancy, Theory and Society 24:6 (Dec. 1995): 873CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Koven, Seth and Michel, Sonya, Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (New York: Routledge, 1993)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Mink, Wages of Motherhood, vii.

²⁸ Mink co-chaired the Women's Committee of 100, a group of academics and activists who lobbied against punitive welfare reform measures from a feminist perspective. Interestingly, while The Wages of Inequality criticizes maternalist reformers for reinforcing women's domestic role rather than promoting women's independence through wage labor, in Welfare's End, she criticizes feminist contemporaries for failing to acknowledge the value of poor women's caregiving labor. Mink, Gwendolyn, Welfare's End (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998)Google Scholar. For another important contemporaneous intervention around “maternalism,” see Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, Mothers of a New World.

²⁹ Review by Folbre, 872; Carruthers, Bruce G., “Gender, States, and Social Policies: Skocpol's View,” Law and Social Inquiry 18:4 (Autumn 1993): 684–85Google Scholar; Review by Cohen, Miriam, Journal of Social History 28:2 (Winter 1994): 443Google Scholar.

³⁰ Ladd-Taylor, Molly, Mother-Work: Women, Child Welfare and the State, 1890–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 49Google Scholar. Skocpol cited Ladd-Taylor's 1986 dissertation. Ladd-Taylor also challenged monolithic treatments of maternalist reformers; in her analysis, she divided maternalist reformers into sentimental maternalists, progressive maternalists, and feminist maternalists. All insisted on the value of women's caregiving role and labor, but each offered a different agenda for how society might regulate and reward that role.

³¹ Goodwin, Joanne L., Gender and the Politics of Welfare Reform: Mothers’ Pensions in Chicago, 1911– 1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

³² Kleinberg, S. J., Widows and Orphans First: The Family Economy and Social Welfare Policy, 1880–1939 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Krainz, Thomas A., Delivering Aid: Implementing Progressive Era Welfare in the American West (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

³³ Sklar, Kathryn Kish, Florence Kelley and the Nation's Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995)Google Scholar. Skocpol noted that Sklar's biography was in process. Sklar made the argument that gender acted as a substitute for class in American social policy making in “The Historical Foundations of Women's Power in the Creation of the American Welfare State” in Mothers of a New World.

³⁴ Gordon, Linda, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890–1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

³⁵ Hart, Vivien, Bound by Our Constitution: Women, Workers, and the Minimum Wage (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Odem, Mary E., Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995)Google Scholar. See also Alexander, Ruth M., The “Girl Problem”: Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1900–1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Kunzel, Regina G., Fallen Women, Problem Girls: Unmarried Mothers and the Professionalization of Social Work, 1890–1945 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Trost, Jennifer, Gateway to Justice: The Juvenile Court and Progressive Child Welfare in a Southern City (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

³⁷ Historians vigorously debated the definition and reach of “maternalism” as a political approach and the question of whether Progressive Era maternalism should be defined as “feminist” or not.

³⁸ Review by Kessler-Harris, Alice in Journal of American History 80:3 (Dec. 1993): 1037CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁹ Sonya Michel, “The Limits of Maternalism” in Mothers of a New World, 308; Michel, Sonya, Children's Interests/Mothers’ Rights: The Shaping of America's Child Care Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Gordon, Women, the State, and Welfare

⁴¹ Barbara J. Nelson, “The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workman's Compensation and Mothers’ Aid” in Women, the State, and Welfare, 123–151.

⁴² Review by Kessler-Harris, 1037. Kessler-Harris's 2001 book In Pursuit of Equity details how a deeply “gendered imagination” shaped a broad range of twentieth-century American social policies, including social insurance, employment law, and tax policy. Harris, Alice Kessler, In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁴³ Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled.

⁴⁴ Gordon, Linda, “Black and White Visions of Welfare: Women's Welfare Activism, 1890–1945,” Journal of American History 78:2 (1991): 559–90Google Scholar; Eileen Boris, “The Power of Motherhood in Black and White: Activist Women Redefine the Political” in Mothers of a New World, 213–45.

⁴⁵ Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; White, Deborah Gray, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999)Google Scholar; Schechter, Patricia A., Ida B. Wells-Barnett and American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Giddings, Paula, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: W. Morrow, 1984)Google Scholar; Elsa Barkley Brown, “Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere: African American Political Life in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom,” Public Culture,7:11 (Fall 1994): 107–46; Lasch-Quinn, Elisabeth, Black Neighbors: Race and the Limits of Reform in the American Settlement House Movement, 1890–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Michele, Righteous Propagation: African Americans and the Politics of Racial Destiny after Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Mink, Wages of Motherhood; Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work; Sanchez, George J., “‘Go After the Women’: Americanization and the Mexican American Woman, 1915–1929” in Unequal Sisters: A Multicultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, eds. Ruiz, Vickie and DuBois, Ellen Carol, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar;

⁴⁸ Fox, Cybelle, Three Worlds of Relief: Race, Immigration, and the American Welfare State from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Pliley, Jessica R., Policing Sexuality: The Mann Act and the Making of the FBI (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014)Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Brown, Kathleen M., Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁵⁰ Boris, Eileen, “The Racialized Gendered State: Constructions of Citizenship in the United States,” Social Politics 2:2 (1995): 160–80Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Lieberman, Robert C., Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Brown, Michael K., Race, Money, and the American Welfare State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Quadagno, Jill, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Katznelson, Ira, When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth Century America (New York: W.W. Norton, 2005)Google Scholar. Mary Poole argued that it was liberal policy makers’ “colorblind” focus on industrial workers, rather than Southern Democrats’ insistence, that caused these exclusions. Poole, Mary, The Segregated Origins of Social Security: African Americans and the Welfare State (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵² Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White.

⁵³ Barbara J. Nelson, “The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers’ Aid” in Women, the State, and Welfare,123–51; Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled.

⁵⁴ Scholars debated the relative weight of ideology, structure, and other factors in producing this fragmentation. Linda Gordon argues that the reformers who designed the public assistance titles preferred state administration; they had a long history of working at the state level and a social work perspective that favored a case study rather than universal approach to assistance. In her state-centered analysis, Suzanne Mettler argued that the inequalities were an unintended consequence of the federal structure (that designers did not intend to create superior/inferior programs, but the different levels of administration they relied upon ended up doing so). Alice Kessler-Harris identified a deep-seated gender ideology that demanded programs for men be framed as earned and distinct from charity as crucial to the construction of unequal programs. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled; Mettler, Suzanne, Dividing Citizens: Gender and Federalism in New Deal Public Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity.

⁵⁵ Michael K. Brown, Robert Lieberman, and Mary Poole emphasized racial differences, while Suzanne Mettler emphasized gender differences.

⁵⁶ Sonya Michel's journal Social Politics played an important role in fostering and disseminating these analyses.

⁵⁷ Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women; Gordon, Women, the State, and Welfare.

⁵⁸ Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled.

⁵⁹ Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity.

⁶⁰ Canaday, Margot, The Straight State: Sexuality and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁶¹ Kessler-Harris, , “In the Nation's Image: The Gendered Limits of Social Citizenship in the Depression Era,” Journal of American History 86:3 (1999): 1251–79Google Scholar.

⁶² Scott, Daryl Michael, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁶³ Chappell, Marisa, The War on Welfare: Family, Poverty, and Politics in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010)Google Scholar. See also Geary, Daniel, Beyond Civil Rights: The Moynihan Report and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Boris, Eileen and Klein, Jennifer, Caring for America: Home Health Workers in the Shadow of the Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Levenstein, Lisa, A Movement Without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Mittlestadt, Jennifer, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005)Google Scholar. Felicia Kornbluh put this point succinctly in a review of several (at that time) new works on gender and the welfare state: “Maternalism seems to have ceased to attract white bourgeois adherents at least partly because nonwhite women tried to make the doctrine work for them.” Kornbluh, Felicia, “The New Literature on Gender and the Welfare State: The U.S. Case,” Feminist Studies 22:1 (Spring 1996): 188Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ Quadagno, Color of Welfare.

⁶⁸ Gilens, Martin, Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Neubeck, Kenneth J. and Cazenave, Noel A., Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card Against America's Poor (New York: Routledge, 2001)Google Scholar. Neubeck and Cazenave argue that the welfare system is just one piece of a broader racial governing structure designed to preserve white racial dominance.

⁶⁹ Roberts, Dorothy, Shattered Bonds: The Color of Child Welfare (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2002)Google Scholar; Hancock, Ange-Marie, The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen (New York: New York University Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Kohler-Hausmann, Julilly, “Welfare Crises, Penal Solutions, and the Origins of the ‘Welfare Queen,’” Journal of Urban History 41:5 (2015): 756–71Google Scholar; Gwendolyn Mink and Felicia Kornbluh, Ensuring Poverty: Welfare Reform in Feminist Perspective (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming). On social science, see O'Connor, Alice, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Edwards, Rebecca, Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Newman, Louise Michele, White Women's Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Jacobs, Margaret D., White Mother to a Dark Race: Settler Colonialism, Maternalism, and the Removal of Indigenous Children in the American West and Australia, 1880–1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, Forced to Care: Coercion and Caregiving in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012)Google Scholar. See also Bederman, Gail, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Jacobson, Matthew Frye, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000)Google Scholar; Maloney, Dierre M., “Women, Sexual Morality, and Economic Dependency in Early U.S. Deportation Policy,” Journal of Women's History 18:2 (Summer 2006), 95–122Google Scholar.

⁷¹ LeFlouria, Talitha, Chained in Silence: Black Women and Convict Labor in the New South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015)Google Scholar; Haley, Sarah, No Mercy Here: Gender, Punishment, and the Making of Jim Crow Modernity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016)Google Scholar.

⁷² Goldstein, Alyosha, Poverty in Common: The Politics of Community Action During the American Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Roy, Ananya and Crane, Emma Shaw, Territories of Poverty: Rethinking North and South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015)Google Scholar. See also MacPherson, Anne S., “Birth of the U.S. Colonial Minimum Wage: The Struggle Over the Fair Labor Standards Act in Puerto Rico, 1938–1941,” Journal of American History 104:3 (Dec. 2017): 656–80Google Scholar.

⁷³ Mittlestadt, Jennifer, The Rise of the Military Welfare State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ G. William Domhoff, who articulated the most sustained criticism of Skocpol's state-centered approach, offered an alternative class-dominance approach to explaining policy development. Domhoff, G. William, State Autonomy or Class Dominance? Case Studies on Policy Making in America (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁷⁵ Gottschalk, Marie, The Shadow Welfare State: Labor, Business, and the Politics of Health Care in the United States (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ See, for example, Lombardo, Timothy J., “The Battle of Whitman Park: Race, Class, and Public Housing in Philadelphia, 1956–1982,” Journal of Social History 47:2 (2013): 401–28Google Scholar; Freund, David M. P., Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wolfinger, James, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Sugrue, Thomas J., The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ Howard, Christopher, The Hidden Welfare State: Tax Expenditures and Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997)Google Scholar and The Welfare State Nobody Knows: Debunking Myths About U.S. Social Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Mettler, Suzanne, The Submerged State: How Invisible Government Policies Undermine American Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Hacker, Jacob S., The Divided Welfare State: The Battle Over Public and Private Social Benefits in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Brown, Michael K., Race, Money, and the American Welfare State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Hamilton, Dona C. and Hamilton, Charles V., The Dual Agenda: Race and Social Welfare Policies of Civil Rights Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Storrs, Landon, The Second Red Scare and the Unmaking of the New Deal Left (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012)Google Scholar; Lichtenstein, Nelson, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Lichtenstein, Nelson, The Most Dangerous Man in America: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (New York: Basic Books, 1995)Google Scholar.

⁷⁹ Storrs, Second Red Scare.

⁸⁰ Scholars debate the impact of the Serviceman's Readjustment Act on African Americans. Mettler, Suzanne, Soldiers to Citizens: The GI Bill and the Making of the Greatest Generation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Cohen, Lizabeth, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003)Google Scholar; Katznelson, Ira, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Klein, Jennifer, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America's Public-Private Welfare State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

⁸² Jacoby, Sanford M., Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁸³ Shermer, Elizabeth Tandy, Sunbelt Capitalism: Phoenix and the Transformation of American Politics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013)Google Scholar.

⁸⁴ Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.

⁸⁵ Parson, Don, Making a Better World: Public Housing, the Red Scare, and the Direction of Modern Los Angeles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005)Google Scholar; On the development of the robust left-liberal vision of public housing, see Radford, Gail, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)Google Scholar. D. Bradford Hunt argues that the seeds of trouble are found in the compromises liberal policy makers made in the 1937 Housing Act. Hunt, D. Bradford, Blueprint for Disaster: The Unraveling of Chicago Public Housing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁶ Hunt, Blueprint for Disaster; Timothy J. Lombardo, “The Battle of Whitman Park,” 401–28.

⁸⁷ Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis; Self, Robert O., American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Gordon, Colin, Mapping Decline: St. Louis and the Fate of the American City (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009)Google Scholar;

⁸⁸ Freund, David M. P., Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Nicolaides, Becky, My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 1920–1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁹⁰ Lassiter, Matthew D., The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Kruse, Kevin, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005Google Scholar.

⁹² Phillips-Fein, Kim, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009)Google Scholar; Waterhouse, Benjamin C., Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; MacLean, Nancy, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right's Stealth Plan for America (New York: Penguin Random House, 2017)Google Scholar. For a review of social science scholarship in this vein, see Manza, Jeff, “Reconnecting the Political and the Economic in the New Gilded Age,” Contemporary Sociology 44:4 (July 2015): 449–62Google Scholar.

⁹³ Contributions to the Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era’s special issue on the history of capitalism, 15:2 (July 2016) are an encouraging sign.

⁹⁴ Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic; Jacobs, Meg, Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Kornbluh, Felicia, “To Fulfill Their ‘Rightly Needs’: Consumerism and the National Welfare Rights Movement,” Radical History Review 69 (1997): 76–113Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ Stoltzfus, Emilie, Citizen, Mother, Worker: Debating Public Responsibility for Child Care after the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Fousekis, Natalie M., Demanding Child Care: Women's Activism and the Politics of Welfare, 1940–1971 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Michel, Children's Interests/Mothers’ Rights.

⁹⁶ Cobble, Dorothy Sue, The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Deslippe, Dennis, Rights, Not Roses: Unions and the Rise of Working-Class Feminism, 1945–1980 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000)Google Scholar. See also Gabin, Nancy, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women in the UAW, 1935–1975 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990)Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ Campbell, Andrea Louise, How Politics Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Mettler, Suzanne and Soss, Joe, “The Consequences of Public Policy for Democratic Citizenship: Bridging Policy Studies and Mass Politics,” Perspectives on Politics 2:1 (Mar. 2004), 55–73Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Thurston, Chloe, “Policy Feedback in the Public-Private Welfare State: Advocacy Groups and Access to Government Homeownership Programs, 1934–1954,” Studies in American Political Development 29:2 (Oct. 2015): 250–67Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ Levenstein, Movement Without Marches; Kornbluh, Felicia, The Battle for Welfare Rights: Politics and Poverty in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Kornbluh, Felicia, “Disability, Antiprofessionalism, and Civil Rights: The National Federation of the Blind and the ‘Right to Organize’ in the 1950s,” Journal of American History 97:4 (Mar. 2011), 1023–47Google Scholar. See also McEnaney, Laura, “Nightmares on Elm Street: Demobilizing Chicago, 1945–53,” Journal of American History 92 (Mar. 2006), 1265–91Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ Hall, Jacqueline Dowd, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91:4 (Mar. 2005), 1233–63Google Scholar.

¹⁰¹ Becky Thompson summarized and critiqued the standard narrative in “Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism,” Feminist Studies 28:2 (Summer 2002): 336–60Google Scholar. For a collection of challenges, see Hewitt, Nancy A., ed., No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

¹⁰² Nadasen, Premilla, Welfare Warriors: The Welfare Rights Movement in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2005)Google Scholar; “Expanding the Boundaries of the Women's Movement: Black Feminism and the Struggle for Welfare Rights,” Feminist Studies 28:2 (Summer 2002): 270–301Google Scholar; “‘We Do Whatever Becomes Necessary’: Johnnie Tillmon, Welfare Rights, and Black Power” in Want to Start a Revolution?: Radical Women in the Black Freedom Struggle (New York: New York University Press, 2009)Google Scholar. See also Thompson, Becky, “Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism,” Feminist Studies 28:2 (Summer 2002): 336–60Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Valk, Anne, Radical Sisters: Second-Wave Feminism and Black Liberation in Washington, DC (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008)Google Scholar. See also Gold, Roberta S., “‘I Had Not Seen Women Like That Before’: Intergenerational Feminism in New York City's Tenant Movement” in No Permanent Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism, ed. Hewitt, Nancy A. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2010), 329–55Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement.”

¹⁰⁵ Williams, Rhonda Y., The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women's Struggles Against Urban Inequality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Sanders, Crystal, A Chance for Change: Head Start and Mississippi's Black Freedom Struggle (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Germany, Kent B., New Orleans After the Promises: Poverty, Citizenship, and the Search for the Great Society (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Green, Laurie, “Saving Babies in Memphis: The Politics of Race, Health, and Hunger During the War on Poverty” in The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964–1980, eds. Orleck, Annelise and Hazirjian, Lisa (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 133–58Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Orleck, Annelise, Storming Caesars Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁰ Orleck, Storming Caesars Palace; Williams, Politics of Public Housing; Orleck and Hazirjian, The War on Poverty; Gold, Roberta, When Tenants Claimed the City: The Struggle for Citizenship in New York Housing (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014)Google Scholar; Germany, New Orleans After the Promises.

¹¹¹ Boris and Klein, Caring for America.

¹¹² Ladd-Taylor, Molly, Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers’ Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915–1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986)Google Scholar; Boris, Eileen, Home to Work: Motherhood and the Politics of Industrial Homework in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Odem, Delinquent Daughters.

¹¹³ Vapnek, Lara, Breadwinners: Working Women and Economic Independence, 1865–1920 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁴ Batzell, Rudi, “The Labor of Social Reproduction: Household Work and Gendered Power in the History of Social Capitalism, 1870–1930,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 15:3 (July 2016): 310Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ Skocpol, Theda, Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda, The Missing Middle: Working Families and the Future of American Social Policy (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000)Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda and Jacobs, Lawrence R., Health Care Reform and American Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Skocpol, Theda and Williamson, Vanessa, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)Google Scholar. See also various edited collections, including Skocpol and Jacobs, Lawrence K., eds., Reaching for a New Deal: Ambitious Governance, Economic Meltdown, and Polarized Politics in Obama's First Two Years (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2011)Google Scholar; Pierson, Paul and Skocpol, Theda, eds., The Transformation of American Politics: Activist Government and the Rise of Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Jacobs, Lawrence and Skocpol, Theda, eds., Inequality and American Democracy: What We Know and What We Need to Learn (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁶ Michael B. Katz, review of Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age by Rodgers, Daniel T., American Historical Review 104:4 (Oct:1999): 1332Google Scholar.