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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2020
1 Häusler, Josef, Spiegel der Neuen Musik: Donaueschingen: Chronik – Tendenzen – Werkbesprechungen (Kassel, Stuttgart and Weimar: Bärenreiter and J. B. Metzler, 1996), 439.Google Scholar
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5 Haefeli, Anton, IGNM: Die Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik: Ihre Geschichte von 1922 bis zur Gegenwart (Zurich: Atlantis Musikbuch-Verlag, 1982), 518; Richard Toop, György Ligeti (London: Phaidon Press, 1999), 224.Google Scholar
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22 Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, v, 6–22. A comprehensive critique of Taruskin's ideas and methods can be found in Franklin Cox, ‘Review: Richard Taruskin's The Oxford History of Western Music’ (two parts), <http://www.searchnewmusic.org/cox_review.pdf> and <http://www.searchnewmusic.org/cox_taruskin_part2.pdf> (accessed 28 June 2019). and
23 See my ‘The Cold War in Germany as Ideological Weapon for Anti-Modernists' (2011), <http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/6482> (accessed 24 June 2019); and on the specific claim, from Frances Stonor Saunders, that the Darmstadt courses were initiated by the US occupying forces, see Beal, Amy, New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany from the Zero Hour to Reunification (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, and London: University of California Press, 2006), 38; Michael Custodis, Traditionen – Koalitionen – Visionen: Wolfgang Steinecke und die Internationalen Ferienkurse in Darmstadt (Saarbrücken: Pfau, 2010), 48–9; Martin Iddon, New Music at Darmstadt: Nono, Stockhausen, Cage, and Boulez (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 19–22; and Ian Pace, ‘The Reconstruction of Post-War West German New Music during the Early Allied Occupation (1945–46), and its Roots in the Weimar Republic and Third Reich (1918–45)’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Cardiff University, 2018), 4, 168–73, 342–8. (accessed 24 June 2019); and on the specific claim, from Frances Stonor Saunders, that the Darmstadt courses were initiated by the US occupying forces, see Beal, Amy, New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany from the Zero Hour to Reunification (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, and London: University of California Press, 2006), 38; Michael Custodis, Traditionen – Koalitionen – Visionen: Wolfgang Steinecke und die Internationalen Ferienkurse in Darmstadt (Saarbrücken: Pfau, 2010), 48–9; Martin Iddon, New Music at Darmstadt: Nono, Stockhausen, Cage, and Boulez (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 19–22; and Ian Pace, ‘The Reconstruction of Post-War West German New Music during the Early Allied Occupation (1945–46), and its Roots in the Weimar Republic and Third Reich (1918–45)’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Cardiff University, 2018), 4, 168–73, 342–8.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=See+my+‘The+Cold+War+in+Germany+as+Ideological+Weapon+for+Anti-Modernists'+(2011),+
24 Frolova-Walker, Marina, ‘An Inclusive History for a Divided World?’, Journal of the Royal Musical Association, 143 (2018), 1–20. Frolova-Walker writes (p. 3) that ‘Taruskin showed how the advance of ultra-modernism after the Second World War had been conditioned by cold-war ideology and that it was ultimately financed by the CIA’ whilst conceding that Taruskin's work was dependent upon the secondary literature of others, including that of Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta, 2000), as well as Ian Wellens, Music on the Frontline: Nicolas Nabokov's Struggle against Communism and Middlebrow Culture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002). Taruskin does not actually cite Wellens, who on the basis of intense study of the archives of Nicolas Nabokov, secretary-general of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, argues against Stonor Saunders, and concludes that there is no evidence that Nabokov ‘could see some sort of political advantage in promoting serialism’, and that ‘a close study of Nabokov, his writings and his CCF work simply does not support that [Stonor Saunders's thesis]’ (p. 122). Nabokov's various letters make clear his indifference to post-war serialism (presumably Frolova-Walker's ‘ultra-modernism’), in contrast to his huge enthusiasm for Stravinsky, and contain no reference to Cage. Wellens thus concludes that ‘the New Music was no CIA plot’ (p. 125) and ‘Nabokov's project was probably too peripheral within the contemporary music world to force a wholesale revision of music history’ (p. 126). Wellens's book thus undermines Frolova-Walker's claims rather than bolstering them, unless she means something else by ‘ultra-modernism’.Google Scholar
25 Pfitzner, Hans, Futuristengefahr: Bei Gelegenheit von Busoni's Ästhetik (Leipzig: Süddeutsche Monatshefte, 1917), reproduced in Pfitzner, Gesammelte Schriften, 3 vols. (Augsburg: Benno Filser-Verlag, 1926–9), i, 185–223; Pfitzner, Die neue Aesthetik der musikalischen Impotenz: Ein Verwesungssymptom? (Munich: Verlag der Süddeutschen Monatshefte, 1920).Google Scholar
26 See John, Eckhard, Musik-Bolschewismus: Die Politisierung der Musik in Deutschland 1918–1938 (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1994), for a comprehensive study of this Weimar-era term.Google Scholar
27 Eichenauer, Richard, Musik und Rasse (Munich: Lehmanns, 1932), 273–4.Google Scholar
28 ‘“Levïy” flang sovremennoy muzïki’, Muzyka i revolyutsiya, 1 (January 1927), 3–7; trans. Marina Frolova-Walker and Jonathan Walker as ‘The “Left” Wing of Contemporary Music’, Music and Soviet Power, 1917–1932, ed. Frolova-Walker and Walker (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2012), 188–92.Google Scholar
29 See for example Yuriy Keldïsh, ‘Balet “Stal′noy skok” i yego avtor – Prokof′yev’, Proletarsiy muzikant, 6 (1929), 12–19; trans. Frolova-Walker and Walker as ‘The Ballet Steps of Steel and its Composer, Prokofiev’, Music and Soviet Power, ed. Frolova-Walker and Walker, 243–52.Google Scholar
30 See the full transcript of the proceedings leading up to the 1948 Zhdanov decree on music in Alexander Werth, Musical Uproar in Moscow (London: Turnstile Press, 1949), 47–103.Google Scholar
31 Pleasants, Henry, The Agony of Modern Music (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955). Pleasants was head of the CIA branch in the West German capital of Bonn from 1950, and very close to the West German intelligence chief Reinhard Gehlen, but this fact has never to my knowledge been employed in arguments about US/Western cultural policy. See James H. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation: The Men behind Postwar Germany's Defence and Intelligence Establishments (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 102, and for more detail Agilolf Keßelring, Die Organisation Gehlen und die Neuformierung des Militärs in der Bundesrepublik (Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2017).Google Scholar
32 Lipman, Samuel, Music after Modernism (New York: Basic Books, 1979); Roger Scruton, The Aesthetics of Music (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997).Google Scholar
33 Straus, Joseph N., ‘The Myth of Serial “Tyranny” in the 1950s and 1960s’, Musical Quarterly, 83 (1999), 301–43; Heile, ‘Darmstadt as Other’, 161–78; Iddon, ‘Darmstadt Schools’; and Iddon, ‘Spectres of Darmstadt’, Tempo, 67/263 (January 2013), 61–7.Google Scholar
34 From the period from the late 1980s until the early 2000s in which anglophone scholarship on postmodernism flourished, there were certainly some extremely significant publications, especially those relating to musical borrowing, including Joseph Nathan Straus, Remaking the Past: Musical Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradition (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1990), and Glenn Watkins, Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1994). For a wider critical overview of scholarship on borrowing, including earlier traditions of such work, see Pace, Ian, ‘Negotiating Borrowing, Genre and Mediation in the Piano Music of Finnissy: Strategies and Aesthetics’, Critical Perspectives on Michael Finnissy: Bright Futures, Dark Pasts, ed. Ian Pace and Nigel McBride (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2019), 57–103.Google Scholar
35 This phenomenon is chronicled in Douglas Mao and Rebecca L. Walkowitz, ‘Introduction: Modernisms Bad and New’, Bad Modernisms, ed. Mao and Walkowitz (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 1–18; and Mao and Walkowitz, ‘The New Modernist Studies’, Proceedings of the Modern Language Association, 123 (2008), 737–48. This school of thought has been criticized on grounds of adherence to antiquated liberal notions of freedom unaffected by changing historical circumstances, in Max Brzezinski, ‘The New Modernist Studies: What's Left of Political Formalism?’, Minnesota Review, 76 (spring 2011), 109–25; similar arguments were earlier given a more rigorous Marxist theorization by Perry Anderson in his critique ‘Marshall Berman: Modernity and Revolution’ (1983, with postscript 1985), in A Zone of Engagement (London and New York: Verso, 1992), 25–55.Google Scholar
36 As was evident just from the titles of Harry Levin, ‘What Was Modernism?’, Massachusetts Review, 1 (1960), 609–30, and Raymond Williams, ‘When Was Modernism?’ (1987), in The Politics of Modernism: Against the New Conformists (London: Verso, 1989), 31–6. A key text associated with New Modernist Studies, Marjorie Perloff's 21st-Century Modernism: The ‘New’ Poetics (Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), argues that at the beginning of the new century, ‘the modern/postmodern divide has emerged as more apparent than real’ (p. 164), though appears to accept that in literature, the previous few decades represented something of a break, so she is calling essentially for a type of revival. On the other hand, Michael Levenson, in his Modernism (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2011), continues to adhere to a view of modernism as a phenomenon of an earlier era, declaring at the very outset that ‘Modernism may have disappeared as a living cultural force’ (p. 1), and focusing almost entirely on the earlier half of the twentieth century.Google Scholar
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38 Butler, Christopher, Early Modernism: Literature, Music and Painting in Europe 1900–1916 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).Google Scholar
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40 Albright, Daniel, Untwisting the Serpent: Modernism in Music, Literature, and Other Arts (Chicago, IL, and London: University of Chicago Press, 2000).Google Scholar
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43 Frisch, Walter, German Modernism: Music and the Arts (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, and London: University of California Press, 2005). Three years previously, Carol A. Hess had published another regional study, Manuel de Falla and Modernism in Spain, 1898–1935 (Chicago, IL, and London: University of Chicago Press, 2002).Google Scholar
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45 Rethinking Musical Modernism, ed. Dejan Despić and Melita Milin (Belgrade: Institute of Musicology, 2008).Google Scholar
46 The Modernist Legacy: Essays on New Music, ed. Björn Heile (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009).Google Scholar
47 Metzer, David, Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).Google Scholar
48 Musik in der Moderne/Music and Modernism, ed. Federico Celestini, Gregor Kokorz and Julian Johnson (Vienna: Böhlau, 2011); Transformations of Musical Modernism, ed. Erling E. Guldbrandsen and Julian Johnson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).Google Scholar
49 Harper-Scott, J. P. E., The Quilting Points of Musical Modernism: Revolution, Reaction, and William Walton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).Google Scholar
50 Just as some New Modernist Studies scholars have chosen to use the term to refer to any writing published in the first half of the twentieth century, stripping the term of any stylistic or evaluative meaning. See Mao and Walkowitz, ‘Introduction’, 1–2.Google Scholar
51 Janz, Tobias, Zur Genealogie der musikalischen Moderne (Paderborn: Wilhelm Fink, 2014).Google Scholar
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53 Heile and Wilson (p. 3) claim James Hepokoski's Sibelius: Symphony no. 5 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) as the beginning of this tradition, followed by J. P. E. Harper-Scott, Edward Elgar, Modernist (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Daniel M. Grimley, Carl Nielsen and the Idea of Modernism (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2010); Christopher Chowrimootoo, ‘“Britten Minor”: Constructing the Modernist Canon’, Twentieth-Century Music, 13 (2016), 261–90; and Ben Earle, ‘Modernism and Reification in the Music of Frank Bridge’, Journal of the Royal Musical Association, 141 (2016), 335–402.Google Scholar
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55 Johnson, Julian, Out of Time: Music and the Making of Modernity (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 7–8.Google Scholar
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57 Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, iv, esp. pp. 1–58, 131–363, 447–93.Google Scholar
58 This is distinct from an earlier model found in such texts as David Lodge, The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature (London: Edward Arnold, 1977); Christopher Butler, After the Wake: An Essay on the Contemporary Avant-Garde (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980); and, somewhat later, Tyrus Miller, Late Modernism: Politics, Fiction and the Arts between the World Wars (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, and London: University of California Press, 1999), in which modernism is essentially seen as bounded by the Second World War. Miller draws upon Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), and allows for a type of transitional period represented in a literary context by such writers as Samuel Beckett, Vladimir Nabokov, Thomas Pynchon and Alain Robbe-Grillet before the advent of postmodernism, while the earlier writers tend towards postmodernism as an immediate post-1945 phenomenon (which for Butler includes the music of Boulez, Cage, Henze, René Leibowitz, Nono and Stockhausen), which refocuses, recontextualizes and otherwise modifies earlier modernism rather than placing itself in direct opposition to it. This view was anticipated in Ihab Hassan, The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971; 2nd edn, 1982). Butler, however, moved to a different periodization in his Postmodernism: A Very Short Introduction (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), in which Boulez, Henze and Stockhausen from the 1950s are ‘late modernist music’ (p. 84), although Nono and Henze (presumably later works) are ‘leftist versions of postmodernism’ (p. 76). Berio's Sinfonia (1968–9) and works of Ligeti, Alfred Schnittke and Tōru Takemitsu are linked by Butler to postmodernist art, though contrasted with operas of John Adams, Thomas Adès, Harrison Birtwistle and Mark-Anthony Turnage (in which Butler finds ‘a loyalty to a coherent, ontologically relatively stable world’), themselves in contrast to Glass's Einstein on the Beach (1975–6) (pp. 73–6).Google Scholar
59 Berman, Art, Preface to Modernism (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 27–88. I am grateful to Franklin Cox for recommending this text to me some time ago. Its arguments on the importance of sub-periodization of modernism can be related to those of Perry Anderson on the heterogeneity of the different stages of capitalism (A Zone of Engagement, 30–1, 46–7), but are sharply at odds with the relatively ahistorical New Modernist Studies.Google Scholar
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62 Sean Latham and Gayle Rogers, Modernism: Evolution of an Idea (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 20–1. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote on 8 August 1842 of ‘such modernisms as astral lamps, card-tables, gilded Cologne-Bottles, silver taper-stands, and bronze and alabaster flower-vases’: Passages from the American Note-Books of Nathaniel Hawthorne, 2 vols. (Boston: James R. Osgood & Co., 1875), ii, 72.Google Scholar
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65 A good overview of the debates around Catholic modernism can be found in Charles Palermo, Modernism and Authority: Picasso and his Milieu around 1900 (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2015), 69–88.Google Scholar
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67 One prominent exception was Cyril Scott and A. Eaglefield Hull, The Philosophy of Modernism: Its Connection with Music (London: Waverley, c.1925; originally published 1917).Google Scholar
68 This term was employed at least as early as 1909 to describe Ravel's Gaspard de la nuit. See Bhogal, Gurminder Kaur, Details and Consequence: Ornament, Music, and Art in Paris (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 161. The major source texts are Edmondstoune Duncan, Ultra-Modernism in Music: A Treatise on the Latter-Day Revolution in Musical Art (London: Winthrop Rogers, 1915), and Katherine Ruth Willoughby Heyman, The Relation of Ultramodern to Archaic Music (Boston, MA: Small, Maynard & Co., 1921), while the use of this archaic term is also explored in Rita H. Mead, ‘Henry Cowell's New Music Society’, Journal of Musicology, 1 (1982), 449–63 (p. 450); Jenny Doctor, The BBC and Ultra-Modern Music, 1922–1936: Shaping a Nation's Tastes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Carol J. Oja, Making Music Modern: New York in the 1920s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 23; and Kelly, Music and Ultra-Modernism in France, 5–6.Google Scholar
69 Latham and Rogers, Modernism, 223. There has been a recent revival of modernité, for example in Célestin Deliège, Cinquante ans de modernité musicale: De Darmstadt à l'IRCAM, contribution historiographique à une musicologie critique (Sprimont: Mardaga, 2003), and Musique et modernité en France (1900–1945), ed. Sylvain Caron, François de Medicis and Michel Duchesneau (Montreal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 2006).Google Scholar
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82 These are here married to an even cruder rendition of postwar modernism, and an anecdotal dismissal of Straus's careful collection of data. See Susan McClary, ‘The Lure of the Sublime: Revisiting the Modernist Project’, Transformations of Musical Modernism, ed. Guldbrandsen and Johnson, 21–35.Google Scholar
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84 Knapik extends the critique of John Butt in Playing with History: The Historical Approach to Musical Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 14–24.Google Scholar
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89 This contrasts with a very rigorous and impeccably researched engagement with the vexed questions of the funding of the Ferienkurse in Iddon's New Music at Darmstadt.Google Scholar
90 No comprehensive scholarly history yet exists of this institution. However, an archived web resource on the organization, James Deaville, ‘Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein’, may be found at <https://web.archive.org/web/20050307085106/http:/www.humanities.mcmaster.ca:80/~admv/admv.htm> (accessed 1 July 2019). Despite its title, the Musikverein programmed composers from a range of countries, generally those in accordance with the aesthetic outlook of the Neudeutsche Schule.+(accessed+1+July+2019).+Despite+its+title,+the+Musikverein+programmed+composers+from+a+range+of+countries,+generally+those+in+accordance+with+the+aesthetic+outlook+of+the+Neudeutsche+Schule.>Google Scholar
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96 Such as Andreas Huyssen, After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (London: Macmillan, 1986); Steven Whiting, Satie the Bohemian: From Cabaret to Concert Hall (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Bernard Gendron, Between Montmartre and the Mudd Club: Popular Music and the Avant-Garde (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2002); and Ronald Schleifer, Modernism and Popular Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).Google Scholar
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99 See Bowler, Anne, ‘Politics as Art: Italian Futurism and Fascism’, Theory and Society, 20 (1991), 763–94.Google Scholar
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102 Critical Composition Today, ed. Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf (Hofheim: Wolke Verlag, 2006); Nicolaus A. Huber, ‘Critical Composition’, trans. Petra Music and Philipp Blume, Contemporary Music Review, 27 (2008), 565–8.Google Scholar
103 The study of populism is at the time of writing a flourishing area of political science, but has made little headway in musicology. Important texts summarizing common findings on populism include Margaret Canovan, The People (Cambridge and Malden, MA: Polity, 2005); Jan-Werner Müller, What Is Populism? (London: Penguin, 2017); and Cas Mudde, Populism: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017). An older text which remains highly relevant to the issues above is Jim McGuigan, Cultural Populism (London: Routledge, 1992), as is Catherine Liu, American Idyll: Academic Antielitism as Cultural Critique (Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press, 2011).Google Scholar
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