Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-rvbq7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-11T05:16:27.593Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Water, Maize, Salt, and Canoes: An Iconography of Economics at Late Preclassic Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Julia Guernsey
Julia Guernsey*
Affiliation:
Department of Art and Art History, University of Texas at Austin, 2301 San Jacinto Blvd. D1300, Austin, TX 78712-1421(j.guernsey@austin.utexas.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Images on Late Preclassic (300 B.C.–A.D. 250) monuments from Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico, featuring canoe scenes, maize deities, and water gods, have long been interpreted as representing mythic passages. While significant, such interpretations neglect other aspects of the scenes, including environmental and socioeconomic concerns that revolve around rain, subsistence, and water transport. By contextualizing these images and linking them to recent archaeological investigations that illuminate aspects of the Late Preclassic economy of Izapa, I argue that the scenes strategically situated economic activities— maize agriculture, the trade and transport of goods in canoes, even salt production—within a mythic framework. The images constitute an artistic program that entwined mythic tales, industries of salt production, and traditions of water navigation and that phrased them as part of a system of social order during a period of incipient state formation.

Resumen

Resumen

Las imágenes en algunos monumentos del período Preclásico tardío (300 a.C.–d.C. 250) del sitio de Izapa, Chiapas, México – especialmente en las estelas que tienen escenas con canoas, deidades de maíz y deidades de agua – han sido interpretadas por mucho tiempo como pasajes míticos. Aunque estas interpretaciones son importantes para entender la iconografía, no consideran otros aspectos sobresalientes de las escenas, incluyendo elementos que pertenecen a temas más medioambientales y socioeconómicos, particularmente los relacionados a la lluvia, la subsistencia y el transporte acuático. A través de la contextualización de estas imágenes y su vinculación a las investigaciones arqueológicas recientes que muestran aspectos de la economía de Izapa del período Preclásico tardío, sugiero que las escenas situaron estratégicamente actividades económicas -el cultivo del maíz, el comercio y el transporte de bienes en canoas, incluso la producción de sal- dentro de un marco mitológico. Las imágenes dan testimonio de un programa artístico y novelesco que entrelazó cuentos de batallas épicas entre los dioses del maíz y la lluvia, una industria próspera de la producción de sal y una tradición vital de navegación acuática, todo expresado como parte de un sistema de orden social organizado bajo los auspicios de un rey durante un período de formación inicial del estado.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 27 , Issue 3 , September 2016 , pp. 340 - 356
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Alcina Franch, José, and Gelabert, María Paz García 1985 Arqueología de la cuenca del río Samala: Tierras Bajas. Revista Española de Antropología Americana XV:9–58.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P. 1983 Maya Salt Production and Trade. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P. 1990 The Role of Trading Ports in Maya Civilization. In Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, edited by Clancy, Flora S. and Harrison, Peter D., pp. 159–167. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P. 1998 El comercio marítimo de los mayas del Posclásico. Arqueología Mexicana VI (33):16–23.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P., Negrón, Tomás Gallareta, Castellanos, Fernando Robles, and Cobos, Rafael 1988 Isla Cerritos: An Itza Trading Post on the North Coast of Yucatan, Mexico. National Geographic Research 4 (2):196–207.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P., and Mock, Shirley B. 2002 New Perspectives on the Prehispanic Maya Salt Trade. In Ancient Maya Political Economies, edited by Masson, Marilyn A. and Freidel, David A., pp. 334. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Berdan, Frances Frei 1978 Ports of Trade in Mesoamerica: A Reappraisal. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, pp. 187–198. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 40. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Berdan, Frances Frei 1988 Principles of Regional and Long-Distance Trade in the Aztec Empire. In Smoke and Mist: Mesoamerican Studies in Memory of Thelma D. Sullivan, edited by J. Kathryn Josserand and Karen Dakin, pp. 639–656. BAR International Series 402 (ii), Oxford.Google Scholar
Blom, Franz 1934 [1932] Commerce, Trade and Monetary Units of the Maya. In Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 423–440. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Braakhuis, H.E.M. 1990 The Bitter Flour: Birth-Scenes of the Tonsured Maize God. In Mesoamerican Dualism, edited by Rudolf van Zantwijk, R. de Ridder and H.E.M. Braakhuis, pp. 125–147. ISOR Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht.Google Scholar
Braakhuis, H.E.M. 2009 The Tonsured Maize God and Chicome-Xochitl as Maize Bringers and Culture Heroes: A Gulf Coast Perspective. Wayeb Notes 32:1–38.Google Scholar
Braakhuis, H.E.M. 2014 Challenging the Lightnings: San Bartolo's West Wall Mural and the Maize Hero Myth. Wayeb Notes 46:1–26.Google Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. 1998 The Multiple Identities of Aztec Craft Specialists. In Craft and Social Identity, edited by Cathy Lynne Costin and Wright, Rita P., pp. 145–152. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association No. 8.Google Scholar
Carrasco, David 2002 The Sacrifice of Women in the Florentine Codex: The Hearts of Plants and Players in War Games. In Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún, edited by Eloise Quiñones Keber, pp. 197–225. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Castellón Huerta, Blas Román 2007 Un grano de sal: aportaciones etnoarqueológicas al estudio histórico de una industria ancestral. Anuario de Historia 1:67–83.Google Scholar
Chapman, Anne C. 1957 Port of Trade Enclaves in the Aztec and Maya Civilizations. In Trade and Market in the Early Empires, edited by Karl Polanyi, Conrad M. Arensberg, and Pearson, Harry W., pp. 114–153. Free Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Chisholm, Brian, and Blake, Michael 2006 Diet in Prehistoric Soconusco. In Histories of Maize: Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Prehistory, Linguistics, Biogeography, Domestication, and Evolution of Maize, edited by John Staller, Robert Tykot, and Bruce Benz, pp. 161–172. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D. 1961 La Victoria: An Early Site on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Vol. LIII. The Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D., and Flannery, Kent V. 1967 Early Cultures and Human Ecology in South Central Coastal Guatemala. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, Vol. 3. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Dillon, Brian D., Pope, Kevin O., and Love, Michael W. 1988 An Ancient Extractive Industry: Maya Saltmaking at Salinas de los Nueve Cerros, Guatemala. New World Archaeology VII(2–3):37–58.Google Scholar
Edwards, Clinton R. 1978 Pre-Columbian Maritime Trade in Mesoamerica. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, pp. 199–209. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 40. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Estrada, Juan de 1955 Descripción de la provincial de Zapotitlán y Suchitepéquez Anales de la Sociedad de Geografía e Historia de Guatemala, vol. 28:68–84.Google Scholar
Ewald, Ursula 1985 The Mexican Salt Industry 1560–1980: A Study in Change. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart and New York.Google Scholar
Fash, Barbara 2005 Iconographic Evidence for Water Management and Social Organization at Copán. In Copán: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom, edited by E. Wyllys Andrews and Fash, William L., pp. 103–138. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Feldman, Lawrence Herbert 1971 A Tumpline Economy: Production and Distribution Systems of Early Central-East Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Feldman, Lawrence Herbert 1978 Postscript to the Santa Cruz Complex: A Trial Survey of Specialization and Trade in the Period of Initial Contact. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, pp. 141–144. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 40. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Feldman, Lawrence Herbert 1985 A Tumpline Economy. Labyrinthos, Culver City, California.Google Scholar
Finnamore, Daniel 2010 Navigating the Maya World. In Fiery Pool: The Maya and the Mythic Sea, edited by Daniel Finnamore and Houston, Stephen D., pp. 144–159. Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Fowler, William R. Jr., 1989 The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations: The Pipil-Nicarao of Central America. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Fuentes y Guzmán, Francisco Antonio 1932–1933 [1690] Recordación Florida. Discurso historial y demostración natural, mineral, militar y política del Reyno de Guatemala. Biblioteca “Goathemala”, Vols. 6–8. Sociedad de Geografía e Historia, Guatemala City. García de Palacio, DiegoGoogle Scholar
Fuentes y Guzmán, Francisco Antonio 1927 [1576] Relación hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Felipe, Rey D. II en la que describe la provincial de Guatemala, las costumbres de los indios y otras cosas notables. Anales de la Sociedad de Geografía e Historia 4 (1):71–92. Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Gasco, Janine, and Berdan, Frances F. 2003 International Trade Centers. In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Smith, Michael E. and Berdan, Frances F., pp. 109–116. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Girard, Rafael 1966 Los Mayas: su civilización –su historia, sus vinculaciones continentales. Libro-Mex Editores, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Gómez Rueda, Hernando 1995 Exploración de sistemas hidráulicos en Izapa. In VIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1994, edited by Laporte, Juan P. and Escobedo, Héctor L., pp. 9–18. Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes, Instituto de Antropología e Historia, and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Good, Catherine 1995 Salt Production and Commerce in Guerrero, Mexico: An Ethnographic Contribution to Historical Reconstruction. Ancient Mesoamerica 6:1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gossen, Gary H. 1974 Chamulas in the World of the Sun: Time and Space in a Maya Oral Tradition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth, and Pendergast, David M. 1989 Excavations at the Marco Gonzalez Site, Ambergris Cay, Belize, 1996. Journal of Field Archaeology 16(1):1–16.Google Scholar
Grove, David C., and Angulo V., Jorge 1987 A Catalog and Description of Chalcatzingo's Monuments. In Ancient Chalcatzingo, edited by Grove, David C., pp. 114–131. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Guernsey, Julia 2006 Ritual and Power in Stone: The Performance of Rulership in Mesoamerican Izapan Style Art. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Guernsey, Julia 2010a Rulers, Gods, and Potbellies: A Consideration of Preclassic Sculptural Themes and Forms from the Pacific Piedmont and Coast of Mesoamerica. In The Place of Stone Monuments: Context, Use, and Meaning in Mesoamerica's Preclassic Transition, edited by Julia Guernsey, John Clark, and Bárbara Arroyo, pp. 207–230. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Guernsey, Julia 2010b A Consideration of the Quatrefoil Motif in Preclassic Mesoamerica. Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 57/58:75–96.Google Scholar
Guernsey, Julia 2012 Sculpture and Social Dynamics in Preclassic Mesoamerica. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Guiteras Holmes, Calixta 1961 Perils of the Soul: The World View of a Tzotzil Indian. Free Press of Glencoe, New York.Google Scholar
Helms, Mary W. 1993 Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, Trade, and Power. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Henderson, Lucia Ross 2013 Bodies Politic, Bodies in Stone: Imagery of the Human and the Divine in the Sculpture of Late Preclassic Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Art and Art History, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen, Stuart, David, and Taube, Karl 2006 The Memory of Bones: Body, Being, and Experience among the Classic Maya. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Kepecs, Susan 2003a Salt Sources and Production. In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Smith, Michael E. and Berdan, Frances F., pp. 126–130. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Kepecs, Susan 2003b Chikinchel. In The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Smith, Michael E. and Berdan, Frances F., pp. 259–268. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Kepecs, Susan 2007 Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic/Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World System. In Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World, edited by Jeff Karl Kowalski and Cynthia Kristan-Graham, pp. 129–149. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Kepecs, Susan 2015 Ek Chuah Encounters the Holy Ghost in the Colonial Labyrinth: Ideology and Commerce on Both Sides of the Spanish Invasion. In Archaeology of Culture Contact and Colonialism in Spanish and Portuguese America, edited by Pedro P.A. Funari and Senatore, Maria X., pp. 103–131. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Kidder, Alfred V. 1940 Pottery from Champerico, Guatemala. Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology 1(2):4–10. Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Las Casas, Bartolomé de 1909 Apologetica historia de las indias. Serrano and Ganz, Madrid.Google Scholar
Lesure, Richard G. 2009 Settlement and Subsistence in Early Formative Soconusco: El Varal and the Problem of Inter-Site Assemblage Variation. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Lesure, Richard G., and Wake, Thomas A. 2011 Archaic to Formative in Soconusco: The Adaptive and Organizational Transformation. In Early Mesoamerican Social Transformations: Archaic and Formative Lifeways in the Soconusco Region, edited by Lesure, Richard G., pp. 67–93. University of California Press, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Lombardo de Ruiz, Sonia 1998 La navegación en la iconografía maya. Arqueología Mexicana VI (33):40–47.Google Scholar
Love, Michael 2002 Early Complex Society in Pacific Guatemala: Settlements and Chronology of the Río Naranjo, Guatemala. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 66. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Love, Michael 2010 Thinking Outside the Plaza: Varieties of Preclassic Sculpture in Pacific Guatemala and Their Potential Political Significance. In The Place of Sculpture in Mesoamerica's Preclassic Transition: Context, Use, and Meaning, edited by Julia Guernsey, John Clark, and Bárbara Arroyo. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Lowe, Gareth W., Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Espinosa, Eduardo Martínez 1982 Izapa: An Introduction to the Ruins and Monuments. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 31. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 2010 Ancestral Maya Economies in Archaeological Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York.Google Scholar
McBryde, F.W. 1947 Cultural and Historical Geography of Southwest Guatemala, Institute of Social Anthropology, Publication No. 4, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Macias, José Luis, José Luis Arce, Paul W. Layer, and Ricardo Saucedo 2015 Volcanic Hazards Posed by Tacaná to the Soconusco Region. Paper presented at the 80th Annual Meeting of the Society of American Archaeology, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Macias, José Luis, Espíndola, J.M., García-Palomo, A., Scott, K.M., Hughes, S. and Mora, J. C. 2000 Late Holocene Peléan-style Eruption at Tacaná Volcano, Mexico and Guatemala: Past, Present, and Future Hazards. Geological Society of America Bulletin 112 (8):1234–1249.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 1995 Underwater Archaeology, Salt Production, and Coastal Maya Trade at Stingray Lagoon, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 6(3):214–228.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 1996 Ancient Maya Trading Ports and the Integration of Long-Distance and Regional Economies: Wild Can Cay in South-Coastal Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 7:49–62.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2002 Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2005 In Search of Maya Sea Traders. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2007 Ancient Mariners on the Belize Coast: Salt Stingrays, and Seafood. Belizean Studies 29 (2):15–28.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2010 Drowned Landscapes. In Fiery Pool: The Maya and the Mythic Sea, edited by Daniel Finnamore and Houston, Stephen D., pp. 38–40. Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, J. Jefferson, and Kepecs, Susan M. 1989 Prehispanic Saltmaking in Belize: New Evidence. American Antiquity 54 (3):522–533.Google Scholar
Malinowski, Bronislaw 1961 [1922] Argonauts of the Western Pacific. Waveland Press, Long Grove, Illinois.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon 2009 Cacao in Ancient Maya Religion: First Fruit from the Maize Tree and other Tales from the Underworld. In Chocolate in Mesoamerica, edited by McNeil, Cameron L., pp. 154–183. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon 2012 Hieroglyphs from the Painted Pyramid: The Epigraphy of Chiik Nahb Structure Sub 1-4, Calakmul, Mexico. In Maya Archaeology 2, edited by Charles Golden, Stephen Houston, and Joel Skidmore, pp. 60–81. Precolumbia Mesoweb Press, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Mendieta, Gerónimo de 1870 Historia eclesiástica indiana. Antigua Librería, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Mendizábal, Miguel O. de 1928 Influencia de la sal en la distribución geográfica de los grupos indígenas de México. Imprenta del Museo Nacional de Arqueología, Historia, y Etnografía, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Miller, Arthur G. 1977 The Maya and the Sea: Trade and Cult at Tancah and Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico. In The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, edited by Benson, Elizabeth P., pp. 97–135. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Miller, Mary, and Martin, Simon 2004 Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. Thames and Hudson and Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, New York and San Francisco.Google Scholar
Moran, Elizabeth 2007 The Sacred as Everyday: Food and Ritual in Aztec Art. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Art History, City University of New York.Google Scholar
Munn, Nancy 1977 The Spatiotemporal Transformations of Gawa Canoes. Journal de la Société de Océanistes 33:39–54.Google Scholar
Nance, C. Roger 1989 Guzman Mound: A Late Preclassic Salt Works on the South Coast of Guatemala. Report submitted to the Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Nance, C. Roger 1992 Guzmán Mound: A Late Preclassic Salt Works on the South Coast of Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 3:27–46.Google Scholar
Navarrete, Carlos 1978 The Pre-Hispanic System of Communication Between Chiapas and Tabasco. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Lee, Thomas A. Jr., and Carlos Navarrete, pp. 75–108. Papers of the New World Archaeological foundation No. 40. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Neff, Hector 2014 Proyecto Arqueológico Costa del Soconusco Informe de la Segunda Temporada de Campo. Consejo de Arqueología, Instituto Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Norman, V. Garth 1973 Izapa Sculpture, Part I: Album. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 30. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Norman, V. Garth 1976 Izapa Sculpture, Part II: Text. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation No. 30. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.Google Scholar
Orellana, Sandra L. 1995 Ethnohistory of the Pacific Coast. Labyrinthos, Lancaster, California.Google Scholar
Osorio Ogarrio, Víctor Ángel 1998 Sangre, sudor, mocos y lágrimas: excrecencias humanas que originaron la sal ensayo sobre mitología mesoamericana. In La Sal en México, Vol. II, edited by Juan Carlos Reyes G., pp. 373–399. Gobierno del Estado de Colima, Colima, Mexico.Google Scholar
Pye, Mary E. 1995 Settlement, Specialization, and Adaptation in the Río Jesus Drainage, Retalhuleu, Guatemala. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.Google Scholar
Pye, Mary E., Hodgson, John, and Clark, John E. 2011 Jocotal Settlement Patterns, Salt Production, and Pacific Coast Interactions. In Early Mesoamerican Social Transformations: Archaic and Formative Lifeways in the Soconusco Region, edited by Lesure, Richard G., pp. 217–241. University of California Press, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Quenon, Michel, and Le Fort, Geneviève 1997 Rebirth and Resurrection in Maize God Iconography. In The Maya Vase Book, Vol. 5, edited by Barbara Kerr and Justin Kerr, pp. 884–902. Kerr Associates, New York. Quiroz Malca, HaydeéGoogle Scholar
Quenon, Michel, and Le Fort, Geneviève 1995 La sal prieta: una experiencia en la costa chica de Guerrero. In La Sal en México, Vol. I, edited by Juan Carlos Reyes G., pp. 177–205. Gobierno del Estado de Colima, Colima, Mexico.Google Scholar
Reina, Ruben E., and Monaghan, John 1981 The Ways of the Maya: Salt Production in Sacapulas, Guatemala. Expedition 23 (3):13–33.Google Scholar
Romero R., María Eugenia 1998 La navegación maya. Arqueología Mexicana VI (33):6–15.Google Scholar
Rosenswig, Robert M., Janine Gasco, Caroline Antonelli, Rebecca Mendelsohn, Marx Navarro Castillo, and Cuauhtémoc Vidal-Guzman 2012 Proyecto de Reconocimiento Regional de Izapa 2011: Informe Técnicos Parciales. Submitted to the Consejo de Arqueología, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Sahagún, Bernardino de 1950–1982 [1561–1565] Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, translated and edited by O, Arthur J.. Anderson and Dibble, Charles E.. 12 books in 13 volumes. School of American Research, Santa Fe, and University of Utah, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Santley, Robert S. 2004 Prehistoric Salt Production at El Salado, Veracruz, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 15 (2):199–221.Google Scholar
Saturno, William A., David Stuart, and Karl Taube 2005 La identificación de las figures del muro oeste de Pinturas Sub-1, San Bartolo, Peten. In XIX Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2005, edited by Laporte, Juan P., Bárbara Arroyo, and Héctor Mejía, pp. 571–578. Instituto de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Scholes, France V., and Roys, Ralph L. 1948 The Maya-Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel: A Contribution to the History and Ethnography of the Yucatan Peninsula. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 560. Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Scholes, France V., and Roys, Ralph L. 1968 The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel. 2nd ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Shatto, Rahilla Corinne Abbas 1998 Maritime Trade and Seafaring of the Precolumbian Maya. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University.Google Scholar
Shook, Edwin 1971 Field notes from January 17–26, 1971. Registry of Archaeological Sites within the Republic of Guatemala. Archive on file at the Shook, Virginia B. Library, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Stone, Andrea J. 1995 Images from the Underworld: Naj Tunich and the Tradition of Maya Cave Painting. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Stross, Brian 1994 Maize and Fish. Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics 25:10–35.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl A. 1995 The Rainmakers: The Olmec and Their Contribution to Mesoamerican Belief and Ritual. In The Olmec World: Ritual and Rulership, pp. 83–103. Art Museum, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl A. 1996 The Olmec Maize God: The Face of Corn in Formative Mesoamerica. Res 29/30:39–81.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1949 Canoes and Navigation of the Maya and their Neighbors. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 79(1/2):69–78.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1970 Maya History and Religion. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Tokovinine, Alexandre, and Beliaev, Dmitri 2013 People of the Road: Traders and Travelers in Ancient Maya Worlds and Images. In Merchants, Markets, and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian World, edited by Hirth, Kenneth G. and Joanne Pillsbury, pp. 169–200. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Tozzer, Alfred M. 1941 Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatan. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology Harvard University, Vol. XVIII. Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1969 Zinacantan: A Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Voorhies, Barbara (editor) 1989 Ancient Trade and Tribute: Economies of the Soconusco Region of Mesoamerica. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Voorhies, Barbara, and Kennett, Douglas 1995 Buried Sites on the Soconusco Coastal Plain, Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 22(1):65–79.Google Scholar
Wichmann, Søren 1995 The Relationship among the Mixe-Zoquean Languages of Mexico. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Williams, Eduardo 2002 Salt Production in the Coastal Area of Michoacan, Mexico: An Ethnoarchaeological Study. Ancient Mesoamerica 13:237–253.Google Scholar
Williams, Eduardo 2010 Salt Production and Trade in Ancient Mesoamerica. In Pre-Columbian Foodways: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Food, Culture, and Markets in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by John Edward Staller and Michael Carrasco, pp. 175–190. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Williams García, Roberto 1998 La diosa de sal: los ámbitos de la mitología y el simbolismo. In La Sal en México, Vol. II, edited by Juan Carlos Reyes G., pp. 361–372. Gobierno del Estado de Colima, Colima, Mexico.Google Scholar