Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-8bljj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-06T16:03:05.608Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Agricultural Property Rights and Political Change in Nicaragua

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Mark Everingham
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study focuses on Nicaragua's transition from a revolutionary state to one oriented toward democracy and the market, through the political lens of agricultural property rights. The national agenda on property rights after 1990 was dominated by elaborate arrangements to accommodate kinship-based factions of the agroindustrial elite, core Sandinista constituents, rural labor groups, and demobilized peasant combatants. Bargains, legislative initiatives, and constitutional reforms failed to clarify legal ambiguity over coveted assets. Persistent conflict thereby became embedded in official efforts to design a robust property regime. The case of Nicaragua suggests comparisons with other countries where protracted confrontation and social violence over property rights pose serious threats to unconsolidated democratic institutions.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Politics and Society , Volume 43 , Issue 3 , Fall 2001 , pp. 61 - 93
Copyright
Copyright © University of Miami 2001

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agüero, Felipe, and Jeffrey, Stark, eds. 1998. Fault Lines of Democracy in Post-Transition Latin America. Coral Gables: North-South Center Press.Google Scholar
Alarid, David. 1997. Assistant Secretary, Economic/Commercial Section, U.S. Embassy. Author interview. Managua, January 13.Google Scholar
Allio, Lorene, Mariusz, Mark Dobek, Nikolai, Mikhailov, and David, Weimer. 1996. Post-Communist Privatization as a Test of Theories of Institutional Change. In The Political Economy of Property Rights: Institutional Change and Credibility in Centrally Planned Economies, ed. David, Weimer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 319–48.Google Scholar
Appel, Hilary. 1995. Justice and the Reformulation of Property Rights in the Czech Republic. East European Politics and Societies 9, 1: 22–40.Google Scholar
Argüello Poessy, Guillermo. 1997. Vice Minister of Finance for property matters. Author interview. Managua, January 14.Google Scholar
Argüello Vega, Margarita. 1997. Inra technical adviser. Author interview. Managua, January 15.Google Scholar
Asociación de los Trabajadores del Campo (ATC). 1990. El doble rostro de la agroexportación: burguesía y campesinado en el occidente. Managua: ATC.Google Scholar
Banco Central de Nicaragua (BCN). 1990. Programa de estabilización y ajuste estructuralpara Nicaragua, 1990–1994. Managua: BCN.Google Scholar
Banco Central de Nicaragua (BCN). 1998. Informe anual 1997: producción por sectores económicos. Chapter 3. Managua: BCN.Google Scholar
Banco Central de Nicaragua (BCN). 2000. Informe anual 1999: producción por sectores económicos. Chapter 3. Managua: BCN.Google Scholar
Barrtcada (Managua). 1991a. Devuelven tierras a somocistas. May 15: 1, 12.Google Scholar
Barrtcada (Managua). 1991b. Arremeten contra Lacayo. June 8: 1, 8.Google Scholar
Barrtcada (Managua). 1991c. La verdad sobre la reforma agraria. August 28: 1, 7.Google Scholar
Barrtcada (Managua). 1991d. La agresión y la reforma agraria. August 29: 1, 7.Google Scholar
Becker, David. 1996. Citizenship, Equality, and Urban Property Rights in Latin America: the Peruvian Case. Studies in Comparative International Development 31, 1: 65–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berntzen, Einaf. 1993. Democratic Consolidation in Central America: a Qualitative Comparative Approach. Third World Quarterly 14, 3: 589–618.Google Scholar
Biderman, Jaime. 1982. Class Structure, the State, and Capitalist Development in Nicaraguan Agriculture. Ph.D. diss. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Booth, John A. 1991. Socioeconomic and Political Roots of National Revolts in Central America. Latin American Research Review 26, 1: 33–73.Google Scholar
Brockett, Charles. 1992. Measuring Political Violence and Land Inequality in Central America. American Political Science Review 86, 1: 169–76.Google Scholar
Brockett, Charles. 1998. Land, Power, and Poverty: Agrarian Transformation and Political Conflict in Central America. 2d ed. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. 1987. The Political Economy of Central America Since 1920. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Caporaso, James, and David, Levine. 1992. Theories of Political Economy. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Center. 1995. Report on a Property Issues Conference. Montelimar, Nicaragua, July 4–5, 1995. Atlanta: Emory University.Google Scholar
Centeno Gómez, Julio. 1998. Attorney General of the Republic. Author interview. Managua, May 26.Google Scholar
Centro de Investigaciónes y Estudios de la Reforma Agraria (CIERA). 1989. Reforma agraria en Nicaragua, 1979–1989: cifras y referencias, vol. 9. Managua: CIERA.Google Scholar
Centro para la Investigatión, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (CIPRES). 1992a. El area de propiedad de los trabajadores: una nueva forma de propiedad social en Nicaragua. Cuadernos de CIPRES 10. Managua: CIPRES.Google Scholar
Centro para la Investigatión, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (CIPRES). 1992b. El proyecto económico de los trabajadores. Cuadernos de CIPRES 12. Managua: CIPRES.Google Scholar
Centro para la Investigatión, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (CIPRES). 1994a. Directorio económico de cooperattvas y empresas de los trabajadores. Managua: CIPRES.Google Scholar
Centro para la Investigatión, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (CIPRES). 1994b. Organización y gestión empresarial en el APT. Cuadernos de CIPRES 15. Managua: CIPRES.Google Scholar
Centro para la Investigatión, la Promoción, y el Desarrollo Rural y Social (CIPRES). 1995. Experiencias autogestionarias en el area de propiedad de los trabajadores. Cuadernos de CIPRES 18. Managua: CIPRES.Google Scholar
Cerna, Luís. 1994. President, Nicaraguan Bondholders Association. Author interview. Managua, June 24.Google Scholar
Chehabi, H. E., and Juan, J. Linz. 1998. A Theory of Sultanism 2: Genesis and Demise of Sultanistic Regimes. In Sultanistic Regimes, ed. Chehabi, and Linz, . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 26–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colburn, Forrest. 1986. Post-Revolutionary Nicaragua: State, Class, and the Dilemmas of Agrarian Policy. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colburn, Forrest. 1990. Managing the Commanding Heights: Nicaragua's State Enterprises. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Comisso, Ellen. 1991. Property Rights, Liberalism, and the Transition from “Actually Existing” Socialism. East European Politics and Societies 5, 1: 162–88.Google Scholar
Committee to Recover Confiscated American Properties in Nicaragua. 1995. Seminar on American Property Confiscations in Nicaragua. Coral Gables: North-South Center, May 10.Google Scholar
Constituctón política de la República de Nicaragua . 1996a. Ley Marco (199). 3d ed. Managua: Editorial Jurídica.Google Scholar
Constituctón política de la República de Nicaragua . 1996b. Ley de Reforma Parcial (192). Managua: Editorial Jurídica.Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). Certificaciones de la desincorporación de las coporaciones nacionales de la administración publica. Report. Managua: CGR.Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1995a. 142–95, October 26 (Germän Pomares/Monterosa sugar refinery).Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1995b. 144–95, October 30 (Julio Buitrago/Montelimar sugar refinery).Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1995c. 150–95, October 30 (Victoria de Julio sugar refinery).Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1996a. 039–96, June 26 (Agropecuaria La Unión processing plant).Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1996b. D-0206–07–96, July 10 (Matadero Amerrisque slaughterhouse).Google Scholar
Contraloría General de la República (CGR). 1996c. D-0215–07–96, July 12 (Industria Grano de Oro coffee mill).Google Scholar
Corporaciónes Nacionales de la Administración Pública (CORNAP). 1995. Avance del progreso de la privatización. Managua: CORNAP.Google Scholar
Dunkerley, James. 1988. Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America. New York: Verso.Google Scholar
Durham, William. 1979. Scarcity and Survival in Central America: Ecological Origins of the Soccer War. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Edelman, Marc. 1998. Transitional Peasant Politics in Central America. Latin American Research Review 33, 3: 49–86.Google Scholar
Enríquez, Laura. 1991. Harvesting Change: Labor and Agrarian Reform in Nicaragua, 1979–1990, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Enríquez, Laura. 1997. Agrarian Reform and Class Consciousness in Nicaragua. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.Google Scholar
Everingham, Mark. 1996. Revolution and the Multiclass Coalition in Nicaragua. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Everingham, Mark. 1998. Neoliberalism in a New Democracy: Elite Politics and State Reform in Nicaragua. Journal of Developing Areas 32, 2: 237–64.Google Scholar
Fligstein, Neil. 1996. Markets as Politics: a Political-Cultural Approach to Market Institutions. American Sociological Review 61, 4: 656–73.Google Scholar
Getzler, Joshua. 1996. Theories of Property and Economic Development. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26, 4: 639–42.Google Scholar
Gleijeses, Piero. 1991. Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944–1954, Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, Arthur. 1995. Democracy, Property Rights, and Economic Growth. Journal of Development Studies 32, 2 (December): 157–74.Google Scholar
Gould, Jeffery. 1990. To Lead as Equals: Rural Protest and Political Consciousness in Chinandega, Nicaragua, 1912–1979, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Gudmundson, Lowell. 1995. Lord and Peasant in the Making of Modern Central America. in Huber and Safford 1995. 151–76.Google Scholar
Handy, Jim. 1994. Revolution in the Countryside: Agrarian Reform and Rural Conflict in Guatemala, 1944–1954, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Harding Lacayo, Arturo. 1998. Inra director. Author interview. Managua, May 27.Google Scholar
Hendrix, Steven. 1996–97. Pride of Ownership: Land Tenure and Conflict Resolution. Harvard International Review 19, 1: 40–44.Google Scholar
Henry, John. 1999. John Locke, Property Rights, and Economic Theory. Journal of Economic Issues 33, 3: 609–24.Google Scholar
Higley, John, and Richard, Gunther, eds. 1992. Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Huber, Evelyne, and Frank, Safford, eds. 1995. Agrarian Structure and Political Power. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber, Evelyne, and John, Stephens. 1999. The Bourgeoisie and Democracy: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Social Research 66, 3: 759–89.Google Scholar
Huber, Evelyne, Dietrich, Rueschemeyer, and John, Stephens. 1997. The Paradoxes of Contemporary Democracy: Formal, Participatory, and Social Democracy. Comparative Politics 29, 3: 323–42.Google Scholar
Instituto Nicaragüense de Reforma Agraria (INRA). 1997. Informe sobre la gestión técnica del Inra, 1990–1996. Managua: Inra.Google Scholar
Interamerican Development Bank (IDB). 1995. IDB Supports Resolution of Property Conflicts in Nicaragua. Press Release. May 24. Managua: IDB.Google Scholar
Interamerican Development Bank (IDB). 1998. Nicaragua Country Report. Washington, Dc: Statistics and Quantitative Analysis Unit, Idb.Google Scholar
Interamerican Development Bank (IDB). 2000a. Nicaragua Country Report. Washington, DC: Statistics and Quantitative Analysis Unit, IDB.Google Scholar
Interamerican Development Bank (IDB). 2000b. Nicaragua: Recent Economic Developments. Washington, DC: Consultative Group for the Reconstruction and Transformation of Central America, IDB.Google Scholar
Kurtz, Marcus. 1999. Social Origins of Central American Democracy. Latin American Politics and Society 41, 1 (Spring): 87–96.Google Scholar
Lechner, Norbert. 1998. The Transformation of Politics. in Agüero and Stark 1998. 21–40.Google Scholar
Lijphart, Arend, and Carlos, Waisman. 1996. The Design of Markets and Democracies: Generalizing Across Regions. In Institutional Design in New Democracies: Eastern Europe and Latin America, ed. Lijphart, and Waisman, . Boulder: Westview Press. 235–48.Google Scholar
Lustig, Nora, and Ruthanne, Deutsch. 1998. The Inter-American Development Bank and Poverty Reduction. POV-101. March. Washington, DC: IDB.Google Scholar
Martínez, Philip. 1993. Peasant Policy within the Nicaraguan Agrarian Reform, 1979–89. World Development 21, 3: 475–87.Google Scholar
Miami, Herald. 1997a. Sowing the Seeds of Progress. January 10 (supplement): 3–4.Google Scholar
Miami, Herald. 1997b. Cultivating an Edge. January 10 (supplement): 4.Google Scholar
Miami, Herald. 1997c. Nicaragua Land Disputes Bring Together Old Enemies. October 17: 5–6.Google Scholar
Midlarsky, Manus. 1992. The Origins of Democracy in Agrarian Society. Journal of Conflict Resolution 36, 3: 454–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
deMinisterio, Finanzas. 1995. Compendio de leyes y decretos en materia de propiedad, 1979–1995, Managua: Gobierno de Nicaragua.Google Scholar
Moore, Barrington. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1995. Chamorro sanciona leyes. December 1. http:www.nacion.co.crARCHIVO (accessed December 1, 1995).Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1997a. Polémica por documento sobre corrupción durante el gobierno de Violeta Chamorro. April 4.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1997b. Procurador dice que ex presidenta Chamorro no podia vender bienes estatales. August 7.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1997c. Solución a problema de propiedad costaría 1.500 milliones de dólares. August 27.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1997d. Propiedad: discordia solucionada? September 10.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1998a. Gobierno entrega titulos de propiedad a miles de Nicaragüenses. January 13.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 1998b. Cierran puertas de expropriados. April 24.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 2000a. Nicaragua traga hondo: Ee.Uu. aprueba ayuda económica con condiciones. July 31.Google Scholar
La Nación (San José, Costa Rica). 2000b. Presentan leyes de ayuda al agro en el Parlamento de Nicaragua, September 6.Google Scholar
New York Times . 2000. Among Unpaid Wages of a Revolution: Competing Claims on Land in Nicaragua. September 18: 5.Google Scholar
North, Douglass. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
El Nuevo Herald (Miami). 1997. Foro en Managua despierte curiosidad de grupo local. Auguast 1: 5.Google Scholar
El Nuevo Herald (Miami). 1998. Nicaragua atenderá reclamos pendientes de propiedades. February 18: 7.Google Scholar
Nuñez Salmerón, Luís. 1994. Titulación termina en el 96. Productores (Managua) 35: 1–6.Google Scholar
Paige, Jeffrey. 1985. Cotton and Revolution in Nicaragua. In States Versus Markets in the World System, ed. Peter, Evans. Beverly Hills: Sage. 185–206.Google Scholar
Paige, Jeffrey. 1993. Coffee and Power in El Salvador. Latin American Research Review 28, 3: 7–40.Google Scholar
Paige, Jeffrey. 1998. Coffee and Power: Revolution and the Rise of Democracy in Central America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1996. Harding se despide criticando a la Cornap. April 14. http:www.laprensa.com.niarchivo.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1997. Nuevo gobierno, nuevo esperanzas para confiscados. January 25.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998a. Fallo de la Csj no afecta ley de propiedad. April 24.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998b. Peligra ayuda de E.U. por problema de la propiedad. April 28.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998c. Contradicciones entre contralor y procurador. May 29.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998d. Pide devolución de propiedad a procurador. May 30.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998e. Cuatro muertos en pleito por propiedad. August 10.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998f. Las plazuelas. August 14.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998g. Cañeros abuchean a Ortega. August 19.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998h. Dramático, pero pacifico desalojo de los cañeros. August 31.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998i. Banades no verifcó garantías prendarias. October 14.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998J. Pédidas en el agro se calcula en Us$52 milliones, dice Unag. November 4.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998k. Más de diez mil productores serán reubicados. November 23.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998l. Derecha de propiedad olvidado. December 11.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1998m. Piden nulidad de venta de ingenio. December 15.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999a. Destrabado el juicio de Fondoazucar. February 24.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999b. Exportaciones en problemas. April 15.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999c. Zafra con 700,000 quintales menos. April 20.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999d. Exportación bananera en problemas. May 6.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999e. Fsln y Plc negocian “piñata” millionaria. June 14.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 1999f. Somozas reclaman 342 propiedades. July 13.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000a. Rapiña de la Constitución. January 19.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000b. Lacayo respalda publicación de indemnizaciones. February 22.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000c. Gobierno cierra puertas a herederos de Somoza. April 25.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000d. Reforma a Ley 278 agravaría problema de propiedad. May 2.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000e. Gobierno promete doblar solución de propiedad. June 20.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000f. Confiscaciones Sandinistas salieron caras. June 23.Google Scholar
La Prensa (Managua). 2000g. Venta de tierras rurales: negocio o necesidad? August 28.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, and Fernando, Limongi. 1993. Political Regimes and Economic Growth. Journal of Economic Perspectives 7, 3: 51–69.Google Scholar
Quiggin, John. 1993. Common Property, Equality, and Development. World Development 21, 7: 1123–38.Google Scholar
Remmer, Karen. 1997. Theoretical Decay and Theoretical Development: the Resurgence of Institutional Analysis. World Politics 50, 1: 34–61.Google Scholar
Rueschemeyer, Dietrich, Evelyne Huber, Stephens, and John, Stephens. 1992. Capitalist Development and Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, Phil. 1995. The Fall and Rise of the Market in Sandinista Nicaragua. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.Google Scholar
Snyder, Richard. 1992. Explaining Transitions from Neopatrimonial Dictatorships. Comparative Politics 24, 4: 379–99.Google Scholar
Snyder, Richard, and James, Mahoney. 1999. The Missing Variable: Institutions and the Study of Regime Change. Comparative Politics 32, 1: 103–22.Google Scholar
Spalding, Rose J. 1994. Capitalists and Revolution in Nicaragua: Opposition and Accommodation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Spalding, Rose J. 1998. Revolution and the Hyperpoliticized Business Peak Association: Nicaragua and El Consejo Superior de la Empresa Privada. In Organized Business, Economic Change, and Democracy in Latin America, ed. Francisco, Durand and Eduardo, Silva. Coral Gables: North-South Center Press. 147–81.Google Scholar
Stahler-Sholk, Richard. 1990. Stabilization, Destabilization, and the Popular Classes in Nicaragua, 1979–1988. Latin American Research Review 25, 3: 55–88.Google Scholar
Stanfield, J. David. 1995. Insecurity of Land Tenure in Nicaragua. Land Tenure Center Research Paper 120. Madison: University of Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Stein, Howard. 1994. Theories of Institutions and Economic Reform in Africa. World Development 22, 12: 1833–49.Google Scholar
Summit of the Americas. Inter-Summit Property Systems Initiative (ISPI). 2000. Property Registration. Washington, Dc: Organization of American States/U.S. Agency for International Development. http:www.property-registration.orgDocumentsIPSI.htm.Google Scholar
Thiesenhusen, William. 1995. Broken Promises: Agrarian Reform and the Latin American Campesino. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Thiesenhusen, William, and Steven, Hendrix. 1995. Poverty and Progress: the Cases of El Salvador and Nicaragua. Harvard International Review 17, 2: 16–22.Google Scholar
Thompson, Gary, and Paul, Wilson. 1994. Ejido Reforms in Mexico: Conceptual Issues and Potential Outcomes. Land Economics 70, 4: 448–65.Google Scholar
Torres-Rivas, Edelberto. 1993. History and Society in Central America. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Trackman, Brian, William, Fisher, and Luis, Salas. 1999. The Reform of Property Registration Systems in Nicaragua: A Status Report. Development Discussion Paper No. 726. Cambridge: Harvard Institute of International Development.Google Scholar
Unión Nacional Agropecuaria de Productores Asociados de Nicaragua (UNAPA). 1998. Datos básicos del grupo UNAPA. Managua: UNAPA.Google Scholar
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO). 2000a. Production of Primary Crops. Rome: UNFAO.Google Scholar
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO). 2000b. Trade in Crops and Livestock Rome: UNFAO.Google Scholar
Vilas, Carlos. 1992. Family Affairs: Class, Lineage, and Politics in Contemporary Nicaragua. Journal of Latin American Studies 24, 2: 309–41.Google Scholar
Vilas, Carlos. 1996. Prospects for Democratisation in a Post-Revolutionary Setting: Central America. Journal of Latin American Studies 28, 2: 461–503.Google Scholar
Williams, Philip. 1994. Dual Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Popular and Electoral Democracy in Nicaragua. Comparative Politics 26, 2: 169–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Robert. 1986. Export Agriculture and the Crisis in Central America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
World Bank. 1998. Understanding Poverty: Country Data Sets. Washington, DC: World Bank Archives, http:worldbank.orgpovertyindex.htm (Accessed March 18, 1999).Google Scholar
Yashar, Deborah. 1997. Demanding Democracy: Reform and Reaction in Costa Rica and Guatemala, 1870s–1950s. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Yashar, Deborah. 1998. Contesting Citizenship: Indigenous Movements and Democracy in Latin America. Comparative Politics 31, 1: 23–42.Google Scholar
Zeitlin, Maurice, and Richard, Ratcliff. 1988. Landlords and Capitalists: The Dominant Class in Chile. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar