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Indian Population Patterns in Colonial Spanish America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 October 2022

Linda A. Newson
Linda A. Newson*
Affiliation:
King's College London
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Spanish colonialism was disastrous for the Indian population of America. By the end of the colonial period, all Indian groups who had come into contact with Europeans were less than half of the size they had been on the eve of Spanish conquest, and some had become extinct. Although the Indian population was reduced in size between 1492 and 1821, the demographic changes experienced by different Indian groups varied considerably. Some groups became extinct at an early date, others experienced a sharp decline followed by a slow recovery, and others continued to decline slowly into the nineteenth century. The uneven distribution of Indians in Latin America today clearly reflects not only their distribution at the time of the Spanish conquest, but also their subsequent demographic histories. It is the aim of this article to identify regional variations in population trends during the colonial period and to suggest factors that may have been responsible for differences in the level of survival of Indian populations.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 20 , Issue 3 , 1985 , pp. 41 - 74
Copyright
Copyright © 1985 by the University of Texas Press

Footnotes

*

I would like to thank Bill Denevan, Rod Watson, and the four LARR reviewers of earlier drafts of this paper for their constructive criticisms and advice.

References

Notes

1. For attempts at distinguishing broad racial and cultural areas in Latin America, see E. R. Service, “Indian-European Relations in Colonial Latin America,” American Anthropologist 57 (1955):411-25; M. Harris, Patterns of Race in the Americas (New York: Walker, 1964), 1-2; C. Wagley, The Latin American Tradition (New York: Columbia, 1968), 30-37; and D. Ribeiro, “The Culture-Historical Configurations of the American Peoples,” Current Anthropology 11 (1970):403-34. For Middle America, see J. P. Augelli, “The Rimland-Mainland Concept of Culture Areas in Middle America,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 52 (1962):119-29.

2. A few exceptions are the pioneering works of S. F. Cook and W. Borah on Mexico found in Essays in Population History, 3 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971-1979); and the regional studies of the Colombian scholars J. Friede, G. Colmenares, and J. A. and J. E. Villamarin (see notes 29 and 30). Regional studies have also been made of parts of Central America, for example, those of T. T. Veblen and W. G. Lovell (see n. 18).

3. A. L. Kroeber, Cultural and Natural Areas in Native North America, University of California Publications in Archaeology and Ethnology no. 38 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1939):166; H. F. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate,” Current Anthropology 7 (1966):415.

4. For example, W. Borah, “The Historical Demography of Latin America: Sources, Techniques, Controversies, and Yields,” in Population and Economics: Proceedings of Section V of the International Economic History Association, edited by P. Deprez (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, 1970), 173-205; and “The Historical Demography of Aboriginal and Colonial America: An Attempt at Perspective,” in The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, edited by W. M. Denevan (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), 13-34. See also P. Chaunu and H. Chaunu, “La Population de l'Amérique Indienne (Nouvelles Recherches),” Revue Hispanique 29 (1964): 111-18; Denevan, Native Population, 1-12, 35-42, 77-84, 151-56, 235-42, 289-92; Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 395-416; W. R. Jacobs, “The Tip of the Iceberg: Pre-Columbian Indian Demography and Some Implications for Revisionism,” William and Mary Quarterly 31 (1974):123-32; A. Lipshutz, “La despoblación de las Indias después de la conquista,” América Indígena 26, no. 3 (1966):229-47; A. Rosenblat, La población de América en 1492: viejos y nuevos cálculos (Mexico City: Colegio de Mexico, 1967); N. Sánchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974), 32-36; and C. Verlinden, “La Population de l'Amérique précolumbienne: une question de methode,” in Méthodologie de l'Histoire et des Sciences Humaines: Mélanges en Honneur de Fernand Braudel (Toulouse: Privat, 1973):453-62.

5. During the last decade, numerous demographic studies, particularly of Mexico, have been based on evidence from parish registers. Other studies of the eighteenth century based on tribute records, censuses, and other civil materials take a broader view, for example: G. Vollmer, Bevölkerungspolitik und Bevölkerungsstruktur im Vizekönigriech Peru zu Ende der Kolonialzeit, 1741-1821 (Berlin: Verlag Gehlen, 1967); Cook and Borah, Essays 2:180-269; and J. V. Lombardi, People and Places in Colonial Venezuela (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976).

6. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 415. Depopulation ratios are an unsatisfactory means of measuring decline because they cannot be calculated in cases where the population has become extinct. They have nevertheless been used in this article because the variability and availability of information on which this research is based makes the application of more sophisticated techniques difficult. Where possible, population trends have been calculated over equivalent periods of time in order to facilitate comparisons. Although this procedure has not been possible in some cases, the dates over which the changes have taken place are indicated in all cases.

7. C. T. Smith, “Depopulation in the Central Andes in the Sixteenth Century,” Current Anthropology 11 (1970):453-64, see 459. The same order of decline for the Peruvian coast has been suggested by R. G. Keith, who has estimated that the decline in the tributary population of the central coastal valleys between 1525 and 1600 was about 53:1. See Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 42.

8. N. D. Cook, Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 94.

9. Ibid., 114. N. D. Cook provides a number of alternative estimates for the population of Peru in 1520, but his conclusion proposes the general estimate of nine million without providing a breakdown between the sierra and the coast (74-114).

10. Kroeber, Cultural and Natural Areas, 166; D. E. Shea, “A Defense of Small Population Estimates for the Central Andes,” in Native Population, ed. by Denevan, 157-80; Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 415.

11. S. F. Cook and W. Borah, The Indian Population of Central Mexico, 1531-1610, Ibero-Americana no. 44 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1960), 48.

12. W. Borah and S. F. Cook, “Conquest and Population: A Demographic Approach to Mexican History,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 113, no. 2 (1969): 181.

13. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 412; W. T. Sanders, “The Population of the Central Mexican Symbiotic Region, the Basin of Mexico, and the Teotihuacán Valley in the Sixteenth Century,” in Native Population, ed. by Denevan, 130-31; R. A. Zambardino, “Mexico's Population in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 11 (1980):22; A. Rosenblat, La población indígena y el mestizaje en América, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Nova, 1954), 1:102; Rosenblat, Población de América, 23-81. Sanders estimates 2.6 to 3 million for the Central Mexican symbiotic region in Native Population, 130-31. If his estimates are applied to the area studied by Cook and Borah, then the equivalent estimate for the aboriginal population would be 11.4 million, although this figure takes no account of differences in ecology, the size of the population, or rates of population decline between the highlands and the coast. See Denevan, Native Population, 81. Elsewhere Sanders and Price estimate that Mesoamerica, including northern Central America, had an aboriginal population of 12 to 15 million. See W. T. Sanders and B. J. Price, Mesoamerica: The Evolution of a Civilization (New York: Random House, 1967), 77. Denevan suggests an aboriginal population of 18.3 million for Mexico in Native Population, 291.

14. Cook and Borah, Essays 2:176-79.

15. J. Miranda, “La población indígena de México en el Siglo XVII,” Historia Mexicana 12 (1963):184-85.

16. Borah and Cook, “Conquest and Population,” 180; S. F. Cook and W. Borah, The Population of Mixteca Alta, Ibero-Americana no. 50 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), 38, 57; Cook and Borah, Essays 1:355, 2:176-78. For an account of some variations in population movements, see G. Kubler, “Population Movements in Mexico, 1520-1600,” Hispanic American Historical Review 22 (1942):606-43.

17. Vollmer, Bevölkerungspolitik und Bevölkerungsstruktur, 280-91, 367-69; Sánchez-Albornoz, Population of Latin America, 110-14; N. D. Cook, “La población indígena en el Perú colonial,” Anuario del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas (Rosario) 8 (1965):93.

18. T. T. Veblen, “Native Population Decline in Totonicapán, Guatemala,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67 (1977):484-99; W. G. Lovell, “The Historical Demography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, Guatemala, 1500-1821,” in Studies in Spanish American Population History, edited by D. J. Robinson (Boulder, Colo.: West-view Press, 1981), 195-216.

19. R. C. Watson, conversation with the author, July 1983. The picture for Chiapas differs from other areas in that a period of stability at the beginning of the seventeenth century was followed by a sharp decline at the end of the century. Other writers would place the nadir at 1720, when the Indian population had declined 50,000 from an estimated contact population of 275,000, a depopulation ratio of 5.5:1. P. Gerhard, The Southeast Frontier (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), 158-62; M. J. MacLeod, “An Outline of Central American Colonial Demographics: Sources, Yields, and Possibilities,” in The Historical Demography of Highland Guatemala, edited by R. M. Carmack, J. Early, and C. Lutz (Albany: State University of New York, 1982), 8-9.

20. M. J. MacLeod, Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520-1720 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973), 71, 77-78; MacLeod, “Central American Demographics,” 7. Gerhard suggests an aboriginal population of 80,000 for Soconusco, which fell to 1,800 tributaries in 1569 and to 800 in 1684. See his Southeast Frontier, 169-70.

21. L. A. Newson, “Demographic Catastrophe in Sixteenth-Century Honduras,” in Spanish American Population, ed. by Robinson, 227-28; and Newson, “The Depopulation of Nicaragua in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Latin American Studies 14 (1982):284.

22. R. Barón Castro, “El desarrollo de la población hispanoamericana (1492-1950),” Journal of World History 5 (1959):335; H. E. Daugherty, “Man-Induced Ecologic Change in El Salvador,” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 120.

23. MacLeod, Spanish Central America, 19-20, 105-6.

24. Ibid., 77-78; Veblen, “Population Decline in Totonicapán,” 497-99; Lovell, “Demography of the Cuchumatan Highlands,” 240. My own research (as yet unpublished) on Honduras and Nicaragua confirms the same pattern. An exception is Lutz's study of the Quinizilapa Valley near Antigua in Guatemala, which suggests that the population began to increase in the 1620s and 1630s. The study focuses on six villages, but to what extent the increase was typical of a broader area is unknown. See C. Lutz, “Population Change in the Quinizilapa Valley, Guatemala, 1530-1770,” in Spanish Population History, ed. by Robinson, 187.

25. N. Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos en el Alto Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1978), 30-34; Shea, “Defense of Small Population Estimates,” 170-72.

26. Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos, 161.

27. R. B. Tyrer, “The Demographic and Economic History of the Audiencia of Quito: Indian Population and the Textile Industry, 1600-1800,” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1976, 81.

28. For general accounts of demographic changes, see A. Rosenblat, Población indígena 1:102 and tables 2-5; J. A. Villamarin and J. E. Villamarin, Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America (Newark: University of Delaware, 1975), 96-98, 106-7, 113-14. For Costa Rica, Thiel estimated that the Indian population fell from 27,200 at the time of conquest to 8,281 in 1801. See B. A. Thiel, “Monografía de la población de la república de Costa Rica en el Siglo XIX,” Revista de Estudios y Estadísticas no. 8, Serie Demográfica no. 5 (1967):83. The decline was undoubtedly greater because Thiel's estimate for 1522 is very conservative. Denevan suggests an aboriginal population of 400,000 for Costa Rica in Native Population, 291. For Venezuela, see F. Brito-Figueroa, Historia económica y social de Venezuela, 2 vols. (Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1966), 1:21-35, 123-35, 160; and E. Arcila Farias, La encomienda en Venezuela (Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1966), 64-70. For the La Plata region, see C. M. Fein, “Las poblaciones indígenas del Río de la Plata a comienzos del Siglo XVI y su evolución después,” Thirty-Fifth International Congress of Americanists, 3 vols. (1964), 3:393-96; H. A. Difrieri, “Población indígena y colonial,” in F. de Aparicio and H. A. Difrieri, La Argentina, suma de geografía, 10 vols. (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Peuser, 1961), 7:3-88; and J. Comadrón Ruiz, Evolución demográfica argentina durante el período hispano, 1535-1810 (Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria, 1969). For Paraguay, see J. Mora, Historia Social de Paraguay, 1600-1650 (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1973), 47-67. For Chile, see R. Mellare, La introducción de la esclavitud negra en Chile, tráfico y rutas (Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1959), 211-26; M. Carmagnani, “Colonial Latin American Demography: The Growth of the Chilean Population, 1700-1830,” Journal of Social History 1 (1967):179-91.

29. J. Friede, “Algunas consideraciones sobre la evolución demográfica de la provincia de Tunja,” Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 2 (1965):5-19, see 13; and Villamarin and Villamarín, Indian Labor, 83-84.

30. G. Colmenares, Encomienda y población en la provincia de Pamplona, 1549-1650 (Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes, 1969), 47; J. Friede, Los Quimbayas bajo la dominación española: estudio documental (1539-1810) (Bogotá: Banco de la República, 1963), 253; and J. Friede, Los Andakí: historia de la aculturación de una triba selvática (Mexico and Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1953), 188-89.

31. Cook and Borah, Essays 1:411-29.

32. Denevan, Native Population, 234; and J. Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians (London: Macmillan, 1978), 490-92.

33. W. M. Denevan, comment on “Estimating Aboriginal American Population: An Appraisal of Techniques with a New Hemispheric Estimate” by H. F. Dobyns, Current Anthropology 7 (1966):429; and W. M. Denevan, “The Aboriginal Population of Tropical America: Problems and Methods of Estimation,” in Population and Economics, ed. by Deprez, 252-53.

34. P. Chaunu and H. Chaunu, Séville et l'Atlantique, 8 vols. (Paris: SEVPEN, 1959), 8, pt. 1:495-510; Cook and Borah, Essays 1:408; Rosenblat, Población de América, 9-23; and Verlinden, “Population de l'Amérique précolumbienne,” 459. For criticisms of Cook and Borah's estimate, see D. Henige, “On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics,” Hispanic American Historical Review 58 (1978):217-37; R. A. Zambardino, “Critique of David Henige's ‘On the Contact Population of Hispaniola: History as Higher Mathematics’,” Hispanic American Historical Review 58 (1978):700-708. For the Caribbean area in general, see Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 409; Denevan, “Aboriginal Population of Tropical America,” 253; Denevan, Native Population, 41; and MacLeod, Spanish Central America, 19. For Panama, see C. M. M. Carranza Alba, Etnología y población histórica de Panamá (Panama: Imprenta Nacional, 1928), 5-11, 14-18; C. O. Sauer, Early Spanish Main (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 284-85; and C. F. Bennett, Human Influences on the Zoogeography of Panama, Ibero-Americana no. 51 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), 36-38, 51.

35. S. F. Cook, “The Demographic Consequences of European Contact with Primitive Peoples,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 237 (1945):108-9; J. Vellard, “Causas biológicas de la desaparición de los indios americanos,” Boletín del Instituto Riva-Agüero 2 (1956):77-93; H. F. Dobyns, “An Outline of Andean Epidemic History to 1720,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 37 (1963):493-515; W. Borah, “America as Model: The Demographic Impact of European Expansion upon the Non-European World,” Thirty-Fifth International Congress of Americanists, 3 vols. (1964), 3:379-87; Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 410-11; A. W. Crosby, “Conquistador y pestilencia: The First New World Pandemic and the Fall of the Great Indian Empires,” Hispanic American Historical Review 47 (1967):321-37; Jacobs, “Tip of the Iceberg,” 123-32; Sánchez-Albornoz, Population of Latin America, 60; A. W. Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Depopulation of America,” William and Mary Quarterly 33 (1976):289-99; Denevan, Native Population, 4-6; and Dobyns, Native American Historical Demography: A Criticial Bibliography (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976), 22-25.

36. Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 410-11; Jacobs, “Tip of the Iceberg,” 130-32; Dobyns, Native American Historical Demography, 25-34; and W. H. MacNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford: Blackwell, 1976), 204-5.

37. Denevan, “Population of Tropical America,” 252; J. E. S. Thompson, Maya History and Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 56-57, 71; Cook and Borah, Essays 1:412-29, 2:176-79; and Denevan, Native Population, 41.

38. P. M. Ashburn, The Ranks of Death: A Medical History of the Conquest of America (New York: Coward-McCann, 1947), 130-34; J. Vivó Escoto, “Weather and Climate of Mexico and Central America,” in Handbook of Middle American Indians 1, edited by R. C. West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964), 213-14; F. L. Dunn, “On the Antiquity of Malaria in the New World,” Human Biology 37 (1965):385-93; Sauer, Early Spanish Main, 279; Thompson, Maya History and Religion, 54-55; J. Duffy, Epidemics in Colonial America (Port Washington and London: Kennikat Press, 1972), 140; C. S. Wood, “New Evidence for a Late Introduction of Malaria into the New World,” Current Anthropology 16 (1975):93-104; and MacNeill, Plagues and Peoples, 213.

39. Denevan, Native Population, 5; A. W. A. Brown, “Yellow Fever, Dengue, and Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever,” in A World Geography of Human Diseases, edited by G. M. Howe (London: Academic Press, 1977), 390; and M. E. Bustamante, “La fiebre amarilla en México y su origen en América,” in Ensayos sobre la historia de las epidemias en México, 2 vols., edited by E. Florescano and E. Malvido (Mexico City: Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social, 1982), 1:28.

40. These diseases may have included typhoid, paratyphoid, bacilliary and amoebic dysentery, hookworm, and other helminthic infections, most of which are water-borne and more prevalent in the humid tropics. See G. Sangster, “Diarrhoeal Diseases,” in Geography of Human Diseases, edited by Howe, 145-74.

41. On smallpox, see C. W. Dixon, Smallpox (London: Churchill, 1962), 313; Z. Deutschmann, “The Ecology of Smallpox,” in Studies in Disease Ecology, edited by J. May (New York: Hafner, 1961), 7-8; and Crosby, “Conquistador y pestilencia,” 333. On plague, see P. H. Manson-Bahr, Manson's Tropical Diseases (London: Cassell, 1948), 261; R. Pollitzer, Plague (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1954), 256-57, 418, 451; J. F. Shrewsbury, A History of Bubonic Plague in the British Isles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 1-6; and MacLeod, Spanish Central America, 8-9. On typhus, see Ashburn, Ranks of Death, 81, 95-96.

42. F. L. Black, “Infectious Diseases in Primitive Societies,” Science 187 (1975):515-18; and Shea, “Defense of Small Population Estimates,” 159-61.

43. Shea, “Defense of Small Population Estimates,” 160-61. The differential impact of disease is clearly demonstrated by M. M. Swann, “The Demographic Impact of Disease and Famine in Late Colonial Northern Mexico,” in Geoscience and Man vol. 21, Historical Geography of Latin America, edited by W. V. Davidson and J. J. Parsons (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1980):97-109; and E. Malvido, “Efectos de las epidemias y hambrunas en la población colonial de México,” in Historia de las epidemias, edited by Florescano and Malvido, 179-97.

44. S. Zavala, New Viewpoints on the Spanish Colonization of America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1943), 68; Service, “Indian-European Relations,” 413-14; Harris, Patterns of Race, 3-13; and Villamarin and Villamarin, Indian Labor, 24-30.

45. For example, C. Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964), 220-21; C. Furtado, Economic Development of Latin America: A Survey from Colonial Times to the Cuban Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 10; M. Lucena Salmoral, “El indofeudalismo Chiboha como explicación de la fácil conquista quesadista,” in Estudios sobre política indigenista española en América, 3 vols. (Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, 1975), 1:111-60; Villamarin and Villamarín, Indian Labor, 29; M. Godelier, “The Concept of ‘Social and Economic Formation’: The Inca Example,” in Perspectives in Marxist Anthropology, M. Godelier (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 68-69; I. Wallerstein, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World Economy, 1600-1750 (New York and London: Academic Press, 1980), 174; and S. J. Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 27-50.

46. H. E. Bolton, “The Mission as a Frontier Institution,” American Historical Review 23 (1917):45; and R. Benedict, “Two Patterns of Indian Acculturation,” American Anthropologist 45 (1943):207-12.

47. See Service, “Indian-European Relations,” 418; and Harris, Patterns of Race, 10-11. Slavery here means the right to dispose of an individual as a piece of property, not a condition of ill-treatment or limited freedom of action.

48. F. Tannenbaum, “Discussion of Acculturation Studies in Latin America: Some Needs and Problems,” American Anthropologist 45 (1943):204-6; J. H. Steward, “Levels of Sociocultural Integration: An Operational Concept,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7 (1951):374-90; Service, “Indian-European Relations,” 416-17.

49. See for example, M. Góngora, Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 131-40.

50. K. Spalding, De indio a campesino: cambios en la estructura social del Perú colonial (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1974), 137-46.

51. The nature and consequences of personal service in Paraguay are described by E. R. Service in “The Encomienda in Paraguay,” Hispanic American Historical Review 21 (1951):230-52; and in Spanish-Guaraní Relations in Early Colonial Paraguay (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1954). In Chile personal service was finally banned in 1635, but it continued illegally until encomiendas were finally abolished in 1791. See E. H. Korth, Spanish Policy in Colonial Chile (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), 170, 208. According to Arcila Farias, personal service under the encomienda persisted in Venezuela until 1687. See Encomienda en Venezuela, 287-90. For more general comments on personal service and the encomienda, see R. K. Barber, Indian Labor in the Spanish Colonies, Historical Society of New Mexico Publications in History no. 6 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1932), 78; R. G. Keith, “Encomienda, Hacienda, and Corregimiento in Spanish America: A Structural Analysis,” Hispanic American Historical Review 51 (1971):433-37; and Góngora, Studies in Colonial History, 131-43.

52. For comments on the repartimiento or mita see, L. B. Simpson, The Repartimiento System of Native Labor in New Spain and Guatemala, vol. 3 of Studies in the Administration of New Spain, Ibero-Americana 13 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1938):12-13, 17; G. Kubler, “The Quechua in the Colonial World,” Handbook of South American Indians, vol. 2, edited by J. H. Steward, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology no. 143 (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government, 1946), 371; A. R. Pérez, Las mitas en la Real Audiencia de Quito (Quito: Ministerio del Tesoro, 1947), 65-299; J. H. Rowe, “The Incas under Spanish Colonial Institutions,” Hispanic American Historical Review 37 (1957):172; J. L. Phelan, “Free versus Compulsory Labor: Mexico and the Philippines, 1540-1648,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 1 (1959):189-201; Villamarin and Villamarin, Indian Labor, 86-88; E. Tandeter, “Forced and Free Labour in Late Colonial Potosí,” Past and Present 93 (1981):101-26; and Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples, 84-89.

53. L. B. Simpson, Many Mexicos (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 22-23.

54. The extent of indebtedness and degree of control that debts exercised over workers has been discussed recently by A. J. Bauer, “Rural Workers in Spanish America: Problems of Peonage and Oppression,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (1979):35-48; W. Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression, Ibero-Americana no. 35 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1951), 36-44; D. Brading, “Estructura de la producción agrícola en el Bajío, 1700-1850,” in Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones en América Latina, edited by E. Florescano (Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno, 1975), 112, 114; F. Chevalier, Land and Society in Colonial Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963), 280-88; Gibson, Aztecs, 252-56; Góngora, Studies in Colonial History, 149-54; M. Mörner, “The Spanish American Hacienda: A Survey of Recent Research and Debate,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (1973):199-203; Tandeter, “Forced and Free Labour,” 131-35; W. B. Taylor, “Haciendas coloniales en el Valle de Oaxaca,” in Haciendas, latifundios y plantaciones, ed. by Florescano, 91-93; E. Van Young, Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico: The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara Region, 1675-1820 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1981), 248-63; and “Mexican Rural History

since Chevalier: The Historiography of the Colonial Hacienda,“ Latin American Research Review 18, no. 3 (1983):22-24.

55. K. Spalding, “Hacienda-Village Relations in Andean Society,” Latin American Perspectives 2 (1975):114; H. Klein, “The State and the Labor Market in Rural Bolivia in the Colonial and Early Republican Periods,” in Essays in the Political, Economic, and Social History of Colonial Latin America, edited by K. Spalding (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1982), 101.

56. For the relationship of these exactions to free labor, see three studies by K. Spalding: “Tratos mercantiles del Corregidor de Indios y la formación de la hacienda serrana en el Peru,” América Indígena 30 (1970):595-608; De indio a campesino, 127-46; and “Hacienda-Village Relations,” 110.

57. Chevalier, Land and Society, 215, 285; M. González, El resguardo en el Nuevo Reino de Granada (Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1970), 57-59; Keith, “Encomienda, Hacienda, and Corregimiento,” 437-38; A. G. Frank, Mexican Agriculture, 1521-1630: Transformation of the Mode of Production (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 67-71; and E. P. Grieshaber, “Hacienda-Community Relations and Indian Acculturation,” Latin American Research Review 14, no. 3 (1979):111-12, 124.

58. Bauer, “Rural Workers in Spanish America,” 43-45, 48; D. Brading, Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío, 1700-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 197-200; and Van Young, Hacienda and Market, 268-69, and “Mexican Rural History,” 23-24, 27-28.

59. Borah, Century of Depression, 36; Gibson, Aztecs, 245-46; and Frank, Mexican Agriculture, 72.

60. Simpson, Many Mexicos, 124-26.

61. R. C. West, The Mining Community of Northern New Spain: The Parral District, Ibero-Americana no. 30 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1949), 47-49; P. J. Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546-1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 124-80; and D. Brading and H. E. Cross, “Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru,” Hispanic American Historical Review 52 (1972):557-60.

62. Tandeter, “Forced and Free Labour,” 134-36.

63. J. L. Phelan, The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 63.

64. J. Friede, Los Quimbayas, 196-98; and Villamarín and Villamarin, Indian Labor, 88-89.

65. For example, L. A. Newson, “Labour in the Colonial Mining Industry of Honduras,” The Americas 39 (1982):185-203.

66. Barber, Indian Labor, 105.

67. S. F. Cook, “Demographic Consequences of European Contact,” 109.

68. Kubler, “Quechua,” 373; Rowe, “Incas under Spanish Colonial Institutions,” 175; Tandeter, “Forced and Free Labour,” 131; Spalding, “Hacienda-Village Relations,” 111; and Stern, Peru's Indian Peoples, 127, 153-55.

69. Sánchez-Albornoz, Population of Latin America, 54-56; and N. Wachtel, The Vision of the Vanquished (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1977), 90-93.

70. W. B. Taylor, “Land and Society in New Spain: A View from the South,” Hispanic American Historical Review 54 (1974):398; and H. Favre, “The Dynamics of Indian Peasant Society and Migration to Coastal Plantations in Central Peru,” in Land and Labour in Latin America, edited by K. Duncan and I. Rutledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 253-68.

71. Van Young, Hacienda and Market, 273.

72. Bolton, “Mission as a Frontier Institution,” 53-54; and S. F. Cook, The Indian versus the Spanish Mission, vol. 1 of The Conflict between the Californian Indian and White Civilization, Ibero-Americana 21 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1943), 86-87.

73. S. F. Cook, Californian Indian and White Civilization, 2-11.

74. A. Metraux, “Jesuit Missions in South America,” in Handbook of South American Indians vol. 5, edited by J. H. Steward, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 143 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government, 1950), 646; M. Mörner, The Political and Economic Activities of the Jesuits in the La Plata Region (Stockholm: Institute of Ibero-American Studies, 1953), 89-91; and Service, “Indian-European Relations,” 418.

75. H. Aschmann, The Central Desert of Baja California, Ibero-Americana no. 42 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1949), 209. For the introduction of agricultural and craft techniques, see Bolton, “Mission as a Frontier Institution,” 57-60; Metraux, “Jesuit Missions,” 649-52; and R. Ricard, The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1956), 142-46, 151.

76. Metraux, “Jesuit Missions,” 652; D. J. Robinson, “The Syndicate System of the Catalan Capuchins in the Caroní Mission Field,” Revista de Historia 79 (1975):63-76.

77. S. F. Cook, Californian Indian and White Civilization, 94; Mörner, Jesuits in the La Plata Region, 204; and O. Popescu, Sistema económico en las misiones jesuitas (Barcelona: Ariel, 1967), 110-22.

78. Metraux, “Jesuit Missions,” 651.

79. S. F. Cook, Californian Indian and White Civilization, 61.

80. S. F. Cook, The Extent and Significance of Disease among the Indians of Baja California from 1697 to 1773, Ibero-Americana no. 12 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1937), 5.

81. Metraux, “Jesuit Missions,” 647.

82. Aschmann, Central Desert of Baja California, 242.

83. S. F. Cook, Californian Indian and White Civilization, 111-12.

84. Ibid, 63. See also P. Meigs, The Dominican Mission Frontier in Lower California, University of California Publications in Geography no. 7 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, 1935), 155-56.

85. S. F. Cook, Californian Indian and White Civilization, 100; Service, “Indian-European Relations,” 422-23; J. M. Mariluz Urquilo, “Los guaraníes después de la expulsión de los jesuítas,” Estudios Americanos 6 (1953): 324-25; W. M. Denevan, The Aboriginal Cultural Geography of the Llanos de Mojos of Bolivia, Ibero-Americana no. 48 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 33.

86. Góngora, Studies in Colonial History, 130.

87. P. W. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: The Northward Advance of New Spain, 1550-1600 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1952); and S. A. Zavala, Los esclavos indios en Nueva España (Mexico City: El Colegio Nacional, 1967), 65-67.

88. Korth, Spanish Policy in Colonial Chile, 111.

89. A. Rosenblat, Población indígena 2:122; J. M. Cooper, “The Araucanians,” in Handbook of South American Indians vol. 2, edited by J. H. Steward, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 143 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government, 1946), 697; Korth, Spanish Policy in Colonial Chile, 188-208.

90. C. H. Haring, The Spanish Empire in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1947), 63; and Zavala, Esclavos indios, 81.

91. Borah, Century of Depression, 32-33; Chevalier, Land and Society, 55; J. Lang, Conquest and Commerce: Spain and England in the Americas (New York: Academic Press, 1975), 61-62; and Frank, Mexican Agriculture, 21.

92. Frank, Mexican Agriculture, 21; and E. Florescano, “El abasto y la legislación de granos en el Siglo XVI,” Historia Mexicana 14 (1965)586-92.

93. Duncan and Rutledge, Land and Labour, 5.

94. M. J. MacLeod, “Ethnic Relations and Indian Society in the Province of Guatemala ca. 1620-ca. 1800,” in Spaniards and Indians in Southeastern Mesoamerica: Essays on the History of Ethnic Relations, edited by M. J. MacLeod and R. Wasserstrom (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 197-205.

95. Taylor, “View from the South,” 404-9; W. S. Osborn makes the same point for Metztitlán in “Indian Land Retention in Colonial Metztitlán,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (1973):234-35.

96. Keith, “Encomienda, Hacienda, and Corregimiento,” 438; Bauer, “Rural Workers in Spanish America,” 57; and Grieshaber, “Hacienda-Community Relations,” 107, 124.

97. J. Jaramillo Uribe, “La población indígena de Colombia en el momento de la conquista y sus transformaciones posteriores,” Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 1, no. 2 (1964):282-83.

98. For example, Gibson, Aztecs, 144; F. Cámara Barbachano, “El mestizaje en México,” Revista de Indias 24 (1964):34; and W. Jiménez Moreno, “El mestizaje y la transculturación en Mexiamérica,” in El mestizaje en la historia de Ibero-América (Mexico City: Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, 1961), 81.

99. Jiménez Moreno, “El mestizaje y la transculturación,” 83.