1 On imperialism and international law see, e.g., Anghie, A., Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (2004)Google Scholar; Pahuja, S., Decolonising International Law (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On Eurocentrism in histories of international law see Koskenniemi, M., ‘Histories of International Law: Dealing with Eurocentrism’, (2011) 19 Rechtsgeschichte 152CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 See, e.g., Amerasinghe, C.F., Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations (2005), 1–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bowett, D.W., The Law of International Institutions (1963), 1–9Google Scholar; Reuter, P., International Institutions (1958), 35–67Google Scholar. As these titles suggest, many important texts in the discipline refer to ‘international institutions’ rather than ‘international organizations’. Accordingly, this article uses ‘international organizations law’ as a synonym for both ‘the law of international organizations’ and ‘international institutional law’.

3 See also the ‘Forum on International Institutional Law’, (2008) 5 International Organizations Law Review 1.

4 There are no entries for these terms in the indexes of Amerasinghe, supra note 2; Bowett, supra note 2; Klabbers, J., An Introduction to International Institutional Law (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Schermers, H.G. and Blokker, N.M., International Institutional Law: Unity Within Diversity (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Schermers and Blokker has one entry for ‘colonies’. Reuter, supra note 2, is unusual in discussing colonization as a stage in the historical evolution of international relations and international institutions before the Second world War (at 59–61); he also notes a group of international organizations in the period before 1919 that were ‘clearly connected with temporary situations of a colonial type’ (at 207).

5 This article does not address the question of whether international organizations law is best described as a discipline, sub-discipline, field, or branch of international law; it uses these descriptors interchangeably.

6 On the dangers of the terms ‘postcolonial’ and ‘postcolonialism’ see Shohat, E., ‘Notes on the “Post-Colonial”’, (1992) Social Text 99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McClintock, A., ‘The Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term “Post-Colonialism”’, (1992) Social Text 84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Young, R.J.C., ‘What is the Postcolonial?’, (2009) 40 ARIEL 13Google Scholar.

8 The processes of post-war decolonization can hardly be separated from the emergence of welfare states, global markets, or the Cold War over the same period. Separate genealogies of international organizations law could be constructed focused on each of these phenomena.

9 See, e.g., Anghie, supra note 1; Rajagopal, B., International Law from Below (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mazower, M., No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pahuja, supra note 1; Orford, A., International Authority and the Responsibility to Protect (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fakhri, M., Sugar and the Making of International Trade Law (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Helleiner, E., Forgotten Foundations of Bretton Woods (2014)Google Scholar; Özsu, U., Formalizing Displacement: International Law and Population Transfers (2015)Google Scholar; Sinclair, G.F., To Reform the World: International Organizations and the Making of Modern States (2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Klabbers, J., ‘The Emergence of Functionalism in International Institutional Law: Colonial Inspirations’, (2014) 25 EJIL 645CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11 Pahuja, supra note 1, at 42.

12 Alvarez, J.E., International Organizations as Law-makers (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sinclair, supra note 9.

13 Freedman, R., ‘UN Immunity or Impunity? A Human Rights Based Challenge’, (2014) 25 EJIL 239CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Daugirdas, K., ‘Reputation and the Responsibility of International Organization’, (2015) 25 EJIL 991CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 See, e.g., ILC Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations, UN Doc. A/66/10 (2011); International Law Association, Committee on Accountability of International Organizations – Final Report, in Report of the 71st Conference Berlin (2004), 164.

15 See generally Klabbers, J., ‘The Paradox of International Institutional Law’, (2008) 5 IOLR 1Google Scholar.

16 Reuter, supra note 2. An earlier work in Dutch, Tammes, A.J.P.’ Hoofdstukken van International Organisatie (1951), reached a limited audienceCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Bowett, supra note 2. The sixth edition of Bowett’s textbook, co-written by P. Sands and P. Klein, was published in 2009.

18 Schermers, H., International Institutional Law (1972)Google Scholar. The fifth edition, co-written with N. Blokker, appeared in 2011.

19 White, N., The Law of International Organisations (1996)Google Scholar. The third edition was published in 2016.

20 Amerasinghe, supra note 2. The first edition appeared in 1996.

21 J. Klabbers, supra note 4. The third edition was retitled An Introduction to International Organizations Law (2015).

22 See, e.g., Reuter, supra note 2, 214–18; Detter, I., Law Making by International Organizations (1965), 19Google Scholar; Schermers and Blokker, supra note 4, at 37. The element of legal capacity or will is sometimes articulated as a question of international legal personality. See, e.g., ILC, supra note 14, Art. 2(a) (defining ‘international organization’ as ‘an organization established by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing its own international legal personality.’ The definition continues: ‘International organizations may include as members, in addition to States, other entities’).

23 Schermers, supra note 18, at 2.

24 See especially Section 6 below.

25 Not all international organizations lawyers share this orientation, however: see, e.g., Klabbers, supra note 21; and Alvarez, supra note 12.

26 See generally Klabbers, J., ‘The Life and Times of the Law of International Organizations’, (2001) 70 Nordic J. Int’l L. 287CrossRefGoogle Scholar; supra note 10; and supra note 21.

27 Kennedy, D.W., ‘The Move to Institutions’, (1987) 8 Cardozo Law Review 841, at 844Google Scholar.

28 Schermers and Blokker, supra note 4, at 9.

29 See Amerasinghe, supra note 2, at 1; Bowett, supra note 2, at 1–9.

30 The contributions of these scholars are well summarized in Klabbers, supra note 10.

31 Potter, P.B., ‘Origin of the Term International Organization’, (1945) 39 AJIL 803Google Scholar.

32 Scott, J.B., The United States of America: A Study in International Organization (1920)Google Scholar; Vinacke, H.M., International Organization (1934), Ch. 4Google Scholar.

33 F.C. Hicks, The New World Order: International Organization, International Law, International Coöperation (1920), Ch. IIGoogle Scholar. In this sense, ‘international organization’ was more or less synonymous to the contemporaneous term, ‘international government’. Mower, E.C., International Government (1931)Google Scholar; Hobson, J.A., Towards International Government (1915)Google Scholar.

34 Hicks, supra note 33, Chs. III–V; Hill, N.L., ‘Unanimous Consent in International Organization’, (1928) 22 AJIL 319CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

35 Potter, P.B., ‘The League of Nations and Other International Organization: An Analysis of the Evolution and Position of the League in Cooperation among States’, (1934) 6 Geneva Special Studies 1, at 9Google Scholar.

36 Ibid., at 3.

37 League of Nations, Handbook of International Organisations (1921), 8–9Google Scholar.

38 Dubin, M.D., ‘Transgovernmental Processes in the League of Nations’, (1983) 37 International Organization 469CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Myers, D.P., ‘National Subsidy of International Organs’, (1939) 33 AJIL 318, at 321CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kunz, J.L., ‘Experience and Techniques in International Administration’, (1945) 31 Iowa Law Review 40, at 47Google Scholar.

39 Competence of the International Labour Organisation in Regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of the Labour of Persons Employed in Agriculture, Advisory Opinion, 1922, PCIJ Series B No 2; Competence of the ILO to Examine Proposals for the Organization and Development of the Methods of Agricultural Production, Advisory Opinion, 1922, PCIJ Series B No 3; Competence of the International Labour Organization to Regulate Incidentally the Personal Work of the Employer, Advisory Opinion, 1926, PCIJ Series B No 13. It is also notable that, in its advisory opinion on the Employment of Women During the Night (1932), the Court referred to the International Federation of Trade Unions, International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions, and International Organization of Industrial Employers all as ‘international organizations’ (at 6/367).

40 Jurisdiction of the European Commission of Danube between Galatz and Braila, Advisory Opinion, 1927, PCIJ Series B No. 14, at 64; see also at 57, using the term ‘international organization’ to refer to the Commission.

41 See, e.g., Oppenheim, L., ‘Le caractère essentiel de la Société des Nations’, (1919) 26 RGDIP 234Google Scholar; Corbett, J., ‘What is the League of Nations?’, (1924) 5 BYIL 119Google Scholar. General treatises on international law typically devoted a chapter or section to the League, with an occasional (brief) discussion of the ILO. See, e.g., Oppenheim, L., International Law (1928)Google Scholar; Butler, G. and MacCoby, S., The Development of International Law (1928)Google Scholar; Wilson, G.G., International Law (1935)Google Scholar; Berriedale Keith, A., Wheaton’s Elements of International Law (1929)Google Scholar.

42 See, e.g., Myers, D.P., ‘Representation in Public International Organs’, (1914) 8 AJIL 81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hill, supra note 34; Preuss, L., ‘Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities of Agents Invested with Functions of an International Interest’, (1931) 25 AJIL 694CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Myers, supra note 38.

43 Preuss, supra note 42, at 694.

44 See, e.g., Hill, supra note 34, at 327.

45 McNair, A.D., ‘The Functions and Differing Legal Character of Treaties’, (1930) 11 BYIL 100, at 112, 116, 117Google Scholar.

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47 Vinacke, supra note 32, at Ch. 14; Krehbiel, E., ‘The European Commission of the Danube: An Experiment in International Administration’, (1918) 33 Political Science Quarterly 38CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Kazansky, P., ‘Théorie de l’administration international’, (1902) 9 Revue de Droit International Public 353 (discussing the theories of international administration advanced by Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Friedrich Martens, and Lorenz von Stein, among others)Google Scholar.

48 Sayre, F.B., Experiments in International Administration (1919)Google Scholar; Ranshofen-Wertheimer, E.F., The International Secretariat: A Great Experiment in International Administration (1945)Google Scholar; Loveday, A., Reflections on International Administration (1956)Google Scholar.

49 Hudson, M.O., ‘The Advisory Opinions of the Permanent Court of International Justice’, (1925) 10 International Conciliation 321, at 338Google Scholar; Hudson, M.O., ‘Contributions of the Permanent Court of International Justice to the Development of International Law’, (1930) 24 ASIL Proceedings 63, at 64Google Scholar.

50 Klabbers, supra note 10, at 650.

51 Klabbers, J., ‘The EJIL Foreword: The Transformation of International Organizations Law’, (2015) 26 EJIL 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Sinclair, G.F., ‘The Original Sin (and Salvation) of Functionalism’, (2015) 26 EJIL 965CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Reinsch, P.S., Public International Unions (1911), 126 and 71–2Google Scholar.

53 Ibid., at 130 (emphasis in original). On global administrative law, see Kingsbury, B. et al., ‘The Emergence of Global Administrative Law’, (2005) 68 Law and Contemporary Problems 15Google Scholar.

54 Wright, Q., ‘Fundamental Problems of International Organization’, (1940–1) 20 International Conciliation 467Google Scholar.

55 Potter, P.B., An Introduction to the Study of International Organization (1948), 1Google Scholar.

56 See, e.g., Goodspeed, S.S., The Nature and Function of International Organization (1959)Google Scholar; and Leonard, L.L., International Organization (1951)Google Scholar. The title of the journal International Organization, launched in 1947, is another example of this usage.

57 Hudson, M.O., ‘A Design for a Charter of the General International Organization’, (1944) 38 AJIL 711Google Scholar; ‘The International Law of the Future: Postulates, Principles and Proposals’, (1944) 38 AJIL Supplement 41; Carroll, M.B., ‘Postwar International Organization and the Work of the Section of International and Comparative Law of the American Bar Association’, (1945) 39 AJIL 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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59 See generally Jenks, C.W., ‘Some Constitutional Problems of International Organizations’, (1945) 22 BYIL 11Google Scholar.

60 Charter of the United Nations, Preamble, Art. 3.

61 Ibid., Art. 71. More revealingly, Art. 34 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice refers to ‘the constituent instrument of a public international organization’.

62 Ibid., Art. 57.

63 IBRD Articles, Art. V, s. 8 (see also Art. V, s. 2., s. 6); IMF Articles, Art. XII (see also Art. XII, s. 2(iv)).

64 International Organizations Immunities Act, Pub. L. 79–291, 59 Stat. 669, H.R. 4489, enacted December 29, 1945, s. 1, s. 2. See generally Preuss, L., ‘The International Organizations Immunities Act’, (1946) 40 AJIL 332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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69 Schwarzenberger, G., International Law, Vol. 1 (1945), at 338 and 341Google Scholar. Schwarzenberger later claimed that, ‘As a distinct academic discipline and separate teaching subject, the Law of International Institutions probably came into existence in the University of London in the closing years of the Second World War.’ Schwarzenberger, G., ‘Reflections on the Law of International Institutions’, (1960) 13 CLP 276, at 276Google Scholar.

70 Hiss, A., ‘The Development of International Organizations – with Special Emphasis on the Contribution of the United States to This Development since 1942’, (1947) 41 ASIL Proceedings 107, at 107Google Scholar.

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72 Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), Advisory Opinion of 28 May 1948, [1948] ICJ Rep. 57; Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory Opinion of 3 March 1950, [1950] ICJ Rep. 4.

73 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion of 11 April 1949, [1949] ICJ Rep. 174; Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion of 13 July 1954, [1954] ICJ Rep. 47; Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion of 20 July 1962, [1962] ICJ Rep. 151.

74 Constitution of the Maritime Safety Committee of the IMCO, Advisory Opinion of 8 June 1960, [1960] 150 ICJ Rep. 5.

75 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971, [1971] ICJ Rep. 16.

76 Reparation for Injuries, supra note 73.

77 Jenks, supra note 68, at 267 (noting the existence of ‘a considerable amount of controversy’ on this question). Also see generally Bederman, D.J., ‘The Souls of International Organizations: Legal Personality and the Lighthouse at Cape Spartel’, (1996) 36 Virginia Journal of International Law 275Google Scholar.

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87 Ibid., Arts. 75, 76(b); see generally Chs. XII and XIII.

88 Ibid., Art. 73; see generally Ch. XI.

89 Ibid., Art. 55(a); see generally Chs. IX and X.

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96 See especially preamble, Arts. 13, 55.

97 IMF Articles of Agreement, Art. I; IBRD Articles of Agreement, Art. I.

98 UNGA Res. 1803 (XVII) (14 December 1962), UN Doc. A/ RES/ 1803(XVII) Art. 2, [1], [7].

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103 Ibid., at 7 and 9.

104 Ibid., at 9.

105 Ibid., at 33.

106 See generally UN GAOR, 5th Sess., 301st plen. mtg., UN Doc. A/PV.302 (1950); UN GAOR, 5th Sess., 299th plen. mtg., UN Doc. A/PV.299 (1950).

107 The first two peacekeeping operations were the UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), established in May 1948 to supervise the truce between Arab and Israeli forces after the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine; and the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), established in January 1949. The first armed peacekeeping operation was the UN Emergency Force (UNEF), established in 1956. Subsequent operations were established in Lebanon (1958), the Congo (1960), West New Guinea (1962), Yemen (1963), Cyprus (1964), and the Dominican Republic (1965).

108 See generally Sinclair, supra note 9, at 146, 153, 155. As I have argued, peacekeeping simultaneously provided occasions for the formulation of new rationales and techniques of international executive rule. Ibid., at 160–98.

109 Reparation for Injuries, supra note 73, at 183.

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117 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia, supra note 75.

118 Ibid.; International Status of South-West Africa and Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon complaints made against the UNESCO, supra note 116; South West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 21 December 1962, [1962] ICJ Rep. 319.

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130 See above Bowett, supra note 2, at xi. Despite being somewhat lightly referenced, Bowett’s first edition cited Koo (at 325, fn 37); Singh (at 315, fn 9); Bedjaoui (at 92); and Anand (at 269).

131 Koo, supra note 120, at 3. On the equality of states and international organizations see also Boutros-Ghali, B., ‘Le principe d’égalité des états et les organisations internationales’, (1960) 100 (II) Recueil des Cours 1Google Scholar.

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134 Ibid., at 168–83.

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138 Ibid., at 2.

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156 Competence of the ILO in regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of Labour of Persons Employed in Agriculture, Proceedings, 6 July 1922, PCIJ (ser. C), No. 1, Annex 26, at 268 (speech by M. Albert Thomas).

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163 Ibid., at 180.

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165 Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube, supra note 40, at 64.

166 Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996, [1996] ICJ Rep. 66, at 78. See also Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion of 20 December 1980, [1980] ICJ Rep. 99, at 103 (Judge Gros, Separate Opinion) (‘In the absence of a “super-State”, each international organization has only the competence which has been conferred on it by the States which founded it, and its powers are strictly limited to whatever is necessary to perform the functions which its constitutive charter has defined. This is thus a compétence d’attribution, i.e., only such competence as States have “attributed” to the organization.’).

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169 Kunz, J.L., ‘The Changing Law of Nations’, (1957) 51 AJIL 77, at 82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

170 Among progressive international lawyers, Jenks was notably sympathetic to non-Western views, yet he also expressed concern with the ‘psychology of newly won independence’, which was ‘sometimes inclined to take a high view of the prerogatives of sovereignty’. Jenks, C.W., The Common Law of Mankind (1958), 29Google Scholar.

171 Fox, A.B., ‘International Organization for Colonial Development’, (1951) 3 World Politics 340, 343CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

172 Jenks, supra note 170, at 22 (describing international organizations law as ‘the law governing the constitutional framework of a developing world community’).

173 Lazarus, N., ‘“Third Worldism” and the Political Imaginary of Postcolonial Studies’, in Huggan, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Postcolonial Studies (2013), Ch. 14Google Scholar.

174 Also consider the postcolonial backgrounds to significant cases such as Interpretation of the Agreement between the WHO and Egypt, supra note 166; Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons, supra note 166; and Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment of 30 June 1995, [1995] ICJ Rep. 90.

175 See, e.g., Chimni, B.S., ‘International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making’, (2004) 15 EJIL 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In this sense, the works by global South scholars discussed in Section 5 of this article are representative of the ‘first wave’ of Third World approaches to international law. See generally Anghie, A., ‘TWAIL: Past and Future’, (2008) 10 International Community Law Review 479CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

176 Pahuja, supra note 1, at 47.

177 Slaughter, supra note 46; Harrison, G., The World Bank and Africa: The Construction of Governance States (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.