Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-l82ql Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-28T03:28:05.274Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mineralogical and geochemical aspects of impact craters

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 July 2018

C. Koeberl
C. Koeberl*
Affiliation:
Institute of Geochemistry, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
*
*E-mail: christian.koeberl@univie.ac.at
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The importance of impact cratering on terrestrial planets is obvious from the abundance of craters on their surfaces. On Earth, active geological processes rapidly obliterate the cratering record. To date only about 170 impact structures have been recognized on the Earth's surface. Mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical criteria are used to identify the impact origin of such structures or related ejecta layers. The two most important criteria are the presence of shock metamorphic effects in mineral and rock inclusions in breccias and melt rocks, as well as the demonstration, by geochemical techniques, that these rocks contain a minor extraterrestrial component. There is a variety of macroscopic and microscopic shock metamorphic effects. The most important ones include the presence of planar deformation features in rock-forming minerals, high-pressure polymorphs (e.g. of coesite and stishovite from quartz, or diamond from graphite), diaplectic glass, and rock and mineral melts. These features have been studied by traditional methods involving the petrographic microscope, and more recently with a variety of instrumental techniques, including transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, cathodoluminescence imaging and spectroscopy, and high-resolution X-ray computed tomography. Geochemical methods to detect an extraterrestrial component include measurements of the concentrations of siderophile elements, mainly of the platinum-group elements (PGEs), and, more recently, chromium and osmium isotopic studies. The latter two methods can provide confirmation that these elements are actually of meteoritic origin. The Cr isotopic method is also capable of providing information on the meteorite type. In impact studies there is now a trend towards the use of interdisciplinary and multi-technique approaches to solve open questions.

Keywords

impact structurescratersshock metamorphismplanar deformation featureshigh pressure polymorphsgeochemistry of extraterrestrial material
Type
Research Article
Information
Mineralogical Magazine , Volume 66 , Issue 5 , October 2002 , pp. 745 - 768
Copyright
Copyright © The Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alvarez, L.W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F. and Michel, H.V. (1980) Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science, 208, 1095–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beran, A. and Koeberl, C. (1997) Water in tektites and impact glasses by FTIR spectrometry. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 32, 211–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blum, J.D. and Chamberlain, C.P. (1992) Oxygen isotope constraints on the origin of impact glasses from the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Science, 257, 1104–1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blum, J.D., Chamberlain, C.P., Hingston, M.P., Koeberl, C., Marin, L.E., Schuraytz, B.C. and Sharpton, V.L. (1993) Isotopic comparison of K-T boundary impact glass with melt rock from the Chicxulub and Manson impact structures. Nature, 364, 325–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boggs, S., Krinsley, D.H., Goles, G.G., Seyedolali, A. and Dypvik, H. (2001) Identification of shocked quartz by scanning cathodoluminescence imaging. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 36, 783–793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohor, B.F., Foord, E.E., Modreski, P.J. and Triplehorn, D.M. (1984) Mineralogical evidence for an impact event at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Science, 224, 867–869.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohor, B.F., Betterton, W.J. and Krogh, T.E. (1993) Impact-shocked zircons: discovery of shock-induced textures reflecting increasing degrees of shock metamorphism. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 119, 419–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, C.R. and Morrison, D. (1994) Impacts on the earth by asteroids and comets: Assessing the hazard. Nature, 367, 33–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaussidon, M. and Koeberl, C. (1995) Boron content and isotopic composition of tektites and impact glasses: Constraints on source regions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 59, 613–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colodner, D.C., Boyle, E.A., Edmond, J.M. and Thomson, J. (1992) Post-depositional mobility of platinum, iridium and rhenium in marine sediments. Nature, 358, 402–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creaser, R.A., Papanastassiou, D.A. and Wasserburg, G.J. (1991) Negative thermal ion mass spectrometry of osmium, rhenium and iridium. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 55, 397–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cygan, R.T., Boslough, M.B. and Kirkpatrick, R.J. (1990) NMR spectroscopy of experimen tally shocked quartz: Shock wave barometry. Proceedings of the 20th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, pp. 127–136, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston.Google Scholar
Cygan, R.T., Boslough, M.B. and Kirkpatrick, R.J. (1992) NMR spectroscopy of experimentally shocked quartz and plagioclase feldspar powders. Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Proceedings of Lunar and Planetary Science, 22, 127–136.Google Scholar
DeCarli, P.S., Jones, A.P. and Price, G.D. (2002) Laboratory impact experiments and calculations vs. natural impact events. Pp. 595–605 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G., editors). Geological Society of America Special Paper 356.Google Scholar
Deutsch, A. and Schärer, U. (1994) Dating terrestrial impact events. Meteoritics, 29, 301–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Goresy, A., Gillet, P., Chen, M., Künstler, F., Graup, G. and Stähle, V. (2001) In situ discovery of shock-induced graphite-di amond phase transition in gneisses from the Ries crater, Germany. American Mineralogist, 86, 611–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmons, R.C. (1943) The Universal Stage (With Five Axes of Rotation). Geological Society of America, Memoir 8, 205 pp.Google Scholar
Engelhardt, W.v. and Bertsch, W. (1969) Shock induced planar deformation structures in quartz from the Ries crater, Germany. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 20, 203–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erwin, D.H., Bowring, S.A. and Yugan, J. (2002) End-Permian mass extinctions: A review. Pp. 363–383 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G., editors). Geological Society of America Special Paper 356.Google Scholar
Farley, K.A., Montanari, A., Shoemaker, E.M. and Shoemaker, C.S. (1998) Geochemical evidence for a comet shower in the late Eocene. Science, 280, 1250–1253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fehn, U., Teng, R., Elmore, D. and Kubik, P.W. (1986) Isotopic composition of osmium in terrestrial samples determined by accelerator mass spectrometry. Nature, 323, 707–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
French, B.M. (1998) Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures. LPI Contribution 954, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, 120 pp.Google Scholar
French, B.M. and Short, N.M., editors (1968) Shock Metamorphism of Natural Materials. Mono Book Corp., Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 644 pp.Google Scholar
Gilmour, I. (1998) Geochemistry of carbon in terrestrial impact processes. Pp. 205–216 in: Meteorites: Flux with Time and Impact Effects (Grady, M.M., Hutchison, R., McCall, G.J.H. and Rothery, D.A., editors). Special Publication 140, Geological Society of London.Google Scholar
Gilmour, I., French, B.M., Franchi, I.A., Abbott, J.I., Hough, R.M., Newton, J. and Koeberl, C. (2002) Geochemistry of carbon-rich impactites from the Gardnos impact structure, Norway. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 66 (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giuli, G., Pratesi, G., Corazza, M. and Cipriani, C. (2000) Aluminum coordination in tektites: A XANES study. American Mineralogist, 85, 1172–1174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giuli, G., Paris, E., Pratesi, G., Koeberl, C. and Cipriani, C. (2001) Fe and Al coordination in tektites and impact-glasses by XAS [abstract]. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 36, A66–A67.Google Scholar
Glass, B.P. and Wu, J. (1993) Coesite and shocked quartz discovered in the Australasian and North American microtektite layers. Geology, 21, 435–438.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glen, W. (1994) The Mass Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis. Stanford University Press (USA), 370 pp.Google Scholar
Goltrant, O., Cordier, P. and Doukhan, J.C. (1991) Planar deformation features in shocked quartz: A transmission electron microscopy investigation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 106, 103–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gostin, V.A., Keays, R.R. and Wallace, M.W. (1989) Iridium anomaly from the Acraman impact ejecta horizon: Impacts can produce sedimentary iridium peaks. Nature, 340, 542–544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, A.J., Fisler, D.K. and Bohor, B.F. (1996) Distinguishing shocked from tectonically deformed quartz by the use of the SEM and chemical etching. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142, 513–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grieve, R.A.F. and Pilkington, M. (1996) The signature of terrestrial impacts. AGSO Journal Australian Geology and Geophysics, 16, 399–420.Google Scholar
Grieve, R.A.F., Langenhorst, F. and Stöffler, D. (1996) Shock metamorphism in nature and experiment: II. Significance in geoscience. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 31, 6–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gucsik, A., Koeberl, C., Brandstätter, F., Reimold, W.U. and Libowitzky, E. (2001) Cathodoluminescence, electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy of experimentally shock-metamorphosed zircon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hough, R.M., Gilmour, I., Pillinger, C.T., Arden, J.W., Gilkes, K.W.R., Yuan, J. and Milledge, H.J. (1995) Diamond and silicon carbide in suevite from the Nördlinger Ries impact crater. Nature, 378, 41–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, W.G. (1987) Coon Mountain Controversies – Meteor Crater and the Development of Impact Theory. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, USA, 442 pp.Google Scholar
Huffman, A.R. and Reimold, W.U. (1996) Experimental constraints on shock-induced microstructures in naturally deformed silicates. Tectonophysics, 256, 165–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C. (1994) Tektite origin by hypervelocity asteroidal or cometary impact: Target rocks, source craters, and mechanisms. Pp. 133–152 in: Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution (Dressler, B.O., Grieve, R.A.F. and Sharpton, V.L., editors). Geological Society of America, Special Paper 293.Google Scholar
Koeberl, C. (1998) Identification of meteoritical components in impactites. Pp. 133–152 in: Meteorites: Flux with Time and Impact Effects (Grady, M.M., Hutchison, R., McCall, G.J.H. and Rothery, D.A., editors). Special Publication 140, Geological Society of London.Google Scholar
Koeberl, C. (2001 a) Craters on the moon from Galileo to Wegener: A short history of the impact hypothesis, and implications for the study of terrestrial impact craters. Earth, Moon and Planets, 85-86, 209-224.Google Scholar
Koeberl, C. (2001 b) The sedimentary record of impact events. Pp. 333–378 in: Accretion of Extraterrestrial Matter throughout Earth's History (Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B. and Schmitz, B., editors). Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands; Plenum Publishers, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K., editors (2002) Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 356, 746 pp.Google Scholar
Koeberl, C. and Reimold, W.U. (1995) Early Archaean spherule beds in the Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa: no evidence for impact origin. Precambrian Research, 74, 1–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C. and Shirey, S.B. (1993) Detection of a meteoritic component in Ivory Coast tektites with rhenium-osmium isotopes. Science, 261, 595–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koeberl, C. and Shirey, S.B. (1997) Re-Os systematics as a diagnostic tool for the study of impact craters and distal ejecta. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 132, 25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C., Reimold, W.U., Shirey, S.B., and Le Roux, F.G. (1994) Kalkkop crater, Cape Province, South Africa: Confirmation of impact origin using osmium isotope systematics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 58, 1229–1234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C., Reimold, W.U. and Shirey, S.B. (1996) A Re-Os isotope and geochemical study of the Vredefort Granophyre: clues to the origin of the Vredefort structure, South Africa. Geology, 24, 913–916.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C., Masaitis, V.L., Shafranovsky, G.I., Gilmour, I., Langenhorst, F. and Schrauder, M. (1997) Diamonds from the Popigai impact structure, Russia. Geology, 25, 967–970.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C., Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B., Reimold, W.U., Shukolyukov, A. and Lugmair, G.W. (2002 a) A comparison of the osmium and chromium isotopic methods for the detection of meteoritic components in impactites: Examples from the Morokweng and Vredefort impact structures, South Africa. Pp. 607–617 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G., editors). Geological Society of America Special Paper 356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koeberl, C., Denison, C., Ketcham, R. and Reimold, W.U. (2002 b) High resolution X-ray computed tomography of impactites. Journal of Geophysical Research (in press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyte, F.T., Zhou, L. and Lowe, D.R. (1992) Noble metal abundances in an Early Archean impact deposit. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 56, 1365–1372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langenhorst, F. (1994) Shock experiments on α- and ßquartz: II. Modelling of lattice expansion and amorphization. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 128, 683–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langenhorst, F. and Deutsch, A. (1998) Minerals in terrestrial impact structures and their characteristic features. Pp. 95–119 in: Advanced Mineralogy, Volume 3, Mineral Matter in Space, Mantle, Ocean Floor, Biosphere, Environmental Management, and Jewelry (Marfunin, A.S., editor). Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg.Google Scholar
Leroux, H., Reimold, W.U. and Doukhan, J.C. (1994) A T.E.M. investigation of shock metamorphism in quartz from the Vredefort Dome, South Africa. Tectonophysics, 230, 223–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leroux, H., Reimold, W.U., Koeberl, C., Hornemann, U. and Doukhan, J.-C. (1999) Experimental shock deformation in zircon: A transmission electron microscopic study. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 169, 291–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, J.S. (1997) Rain of Iron and Ice: The Very Real Threat of Comet and Asteroid Bombardment. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, UK, 240 pp.Google Scholar
Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R., Asaro, F. and Kyte, F.T. (1989) Geological and geochemical record of 3400-million-year-old terrestrial meteorite impacts. Science, 245, 959–962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luck, J.M. and Turekian, K.K. (1983) Osmium-187/Osmium-186 in manganese nodules and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Science, 222, 613–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lugmair, G.W. and Shukolyukov, A. (1998) Early solar system timescales according to 53Mn-53Cr systematics. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62, 2863–2886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mark, K. (1987) Meteorite Craters. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona, USA, 288 pp.Google Scholar
McDonald, I. (2002) Clearwater East impact structure: A re-interpretation of the projectile type using new platinum-group element data from meteorites. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 37, 459–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, I., Andreoli, M.A.G., Hart, R.J. and Tredoux, M. (2001) Platinum-group elements in the Morokweng impact structure, South Africa: Evidence for the impact of a large ordinary chondrite projectile at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 65, 299–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medenbach, O. (1985) A new microrefractometer spindle stage and its application. Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 63, 111–133.Google Scholar
Melosh, H.J. (1989) Impact Cratering – A Geologic Process. Oxford University Press, New York, 245 pp.Google Scholar
Melosh, H.J. (2001) Impact-induced volcanism: A geologic myth. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 33(7), abs. no. 28367.Google Scholar
Mittlefehldt, D.W., See, T.H. and Hörz, F. (1992) Dissemination and fractionation of projectile materials in the impact melts from Wabar crater, Saudi Arabia. Meteoritics, 27, 361–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montanari, A. and Koeberl, C. (2000) Impact Stratigraphy - The Italian Record. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin, 364 pp.Google Scholar
Morgan, J.W., Higuchi, H., Ganapathy, R. and Anders, E. (1975) Meteoritic material in four terrestrial meteorite craters. Proceedings of the 6th Lunar Science Conference, Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 1609–1623Google Scholar
Morgan, J.W., Walker, R.J., Horan, M.F., Beary, E.S. and Naldrett, A.J. (2002) 190Pt-186Os and 187Re-187Os systematics of the Sudbury Igneous Complex, Ontario. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 66, 273–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasmyth, J. and Carpenter, J. (1874) The Moon: Considered as a Planet, A World, and a Satellite. John Murray, London, 189 pp.Google Scholar
Naumov, M.V. (2002) Impact-generated hydrothermal systems: Data from Popigai, Kara, and Puchezh-Katunki impact structures. Pp. 117–172 in: Impacts into Precambrian Shields (Plado, J. and Pesonen, L., editors). Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osinski, G.R. and Spray, J.G. (2001) Impact-generated carbonate melts: evidence from the Haughton structure, Canada. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 194, 17–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palme, H. (1982) Identification of projectiles of large terrestrial impact craters and some implications for the interpretation of Ir-rich Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary layers. Pp. 223–233 in: Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on Earth (Silver, L.T. and Schultz, P.H., editors). Geological Society of America, Special Paper 190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palme, H., Janssens, M.-J., Takahasi, H., Anders, E. and Hertogen, J. (1978) Meteorite material at five large impact craters. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 42, 313–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palme, H., Grieve, R.A.F. and Wolf, R. (1981) Identification of the projectile at the Brent crater, and further considerations of projectile types at terrestrial craters. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 45, 2417–2424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierazzo, E., Vickery, A.M. and Melosh, H.J. (1997) A reevaluation of impact melt production. Icarus, 127, 408–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Proctor, R.A. (1873) The Moon: Her Motions, Aspect, Scenery, and Physical Condition. Alfred Brothers, Manchester, UK.Google Scholar
Rampino, M.R., Prokoph, A., Adler, A. and Schwindt, D.M. (2002) Abruptness of the end-Permian mass extinction as determined from biostratigraphic and cyclostratigraphic analyses of European western Tethyan sections. Pp. 415–427 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G., editors). Geological Society of America Special Paper 356.Google Scholar
Reimold, W.U. (1995) Pseudotachylite in impact structures – generation by friction melting and shock brecciation? A review and discussion. Earth-Science Reviews, 39, 247–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimold, W.U. (1998) Exogenic and endogenic breccias: a discussion of major problematics. Earth-Science Reviews, 43, 25–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryder, G., Fastovsky, D. and Gartner, S., editors (1996) The Cretaceous-Tertiary Event and other Catastrophes in Earth History. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 307, 576 pp.Google Scholar
Schultz, P.H. (1998) Shooting the Moon: Understanding the history of lunar impact theories. Earth Sciences History, 17, 92–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shoemaker, E.M., Wolfe, R.F. and Shoemaker, C.S. (1990) Asteroid and comet flux in the neighborhood of Earth. Pp. 155–170 in: Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on Earth (Silver, L.T. and Schultz, P.H., editors). Geological Society of America, Special Paper 247.Google Scholar
Sharpton, V.L. and Ward, P.D., editors (1990) Global Catastrophes in Earth History. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 247, 631 pp.Google Scholar
Shukolyukov, A. and Lugmair, G.W. (1998) Isotopic evidence for the Cretaceous – Tertiary impactor and its type. Science, 282, 927–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shukolyukov, A. and Lugmair, G.W. (2000) Extraterrestrial matter on Earth: Evidence from the Cr isotopes [abstract]. Pp. 197–198 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond. LPI Contribution No. 1053, Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston.Google Scholar
Shukolyukov, A., Kyte, F.T., Lugmair, G.W., Lowe, D.R. and Byerly, G.R. (2000) The oldest impact deposits on earth – first confirmation of an extraterrestrial component. Pp. 99–116 in: Impacts and the Early Earth (Gilmour, I. and Koeberl, C., editors). Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, 91, Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, L.T. and Schultz, P.H., editors (1982) Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on the Earth. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 190, 528 pp.Google Scholar
Simonson, B.M. and Harnik, P. (2000) Have distal impact ejecta changed through geologic time? Geology, 28, 975–978.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonson, B.M., Davies, D., Wallace, M., Reeves, S. and Hassler, S.W. (1998) Iridium anomaly but no shocked quartz from Late Archean microkrystite layer: Oceanic impact ejecta? Geology, 26, 195–198.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skala, R. and Rohovec, J. (1998) Magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of shocked limestones from the Steinheim crater [abstracts]. Meteoritics and Planetary Science, 33, A146–A147.Google Scholar
Skala, R., Ederova, J., Matejka, P. and Hörz, F. (2002) Mineralogical studies of experimentally shocked dolomite: Implications for the outgassing of carbonates. Pp. 571–585 in: Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond (Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G., editors). Geological Society of America Special Paper 356.Google Scholar
Smit, J. (1999) The global stratigraphy of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary impact ejecta. Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science, 27, 75–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stöffler, D. (1972) Deformation and transformation of rock-forming minerals by natural and experimental shock processes: 1. Behaviour of minerals under shock compression. Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 49, 50–113.Google Scholar
Stöffler, D. (1974) Deformation and transformation of rock-forming minerals by natural and experimental processes: 2. Physical properties of shocked minerals. Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 51, 256–289.Google Scholar
Stöffler, D. and Grieve, R.A.F. (1994 a) Classification and nomenclature of impact metamorphic rocks: A proposal to the IUGS subcommission on the systematics of metamorphic rocks [abstract]. Lunar and Planetary Science, 25, 1347–1348.Google Scholar
Stöffler, D. and Grieve, R.A.F. (1994 b) Classification and nomenclature of impact metamorphic rocks: A proposal to the IUGS subcommission on the systematics of metamorphic rocks. Pp. 9–15 in: Post-Östersund Newsletter (Montanari, A. and Smit, J., editors), European Science Foundation (ESF) Scientific Network on Impact Cratering and Evolution of Planet Earth, Strasbourg.Google Scholar
Stöffler, D. and Langenhorst, F. (1994) Shock metamorphism of quartz in nature and experiment: I. Basic observations and theory. Meteoritics, 29, 155–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stöffler, D., Knöll, H.D. and Maerz, U. (1979) Terrestrial and lunar impact breccias and the classification of lunar highland rocks. Proceedings of the 10th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 639–675.Google Scholar
Whitehead, J., Papanastassiou, D.A., Spray, J.G., Grieve, R.A.F. and Wasserburg, G.J. (2000) Late Eocene impact ejecta: geochemical and isotopic connections with the Popigai impact structure. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 181, 473–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, W.H., Kirkpatrick, R.J., Vergo, N., McHone, J., Emilsson, T.I. and Oldfield, E. (1986) Detection of high-pressure silica polymorphs in whole-rock samples from a Meteor Crater, Arizona, impact sample using solid-state silicon-29 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Meteoritics, 21, 117–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar