Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-m8s7h Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-16T13:26:14.274Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sri Lanka in the Long Early Modern Period: Its Place in a Comparative Theory of Second Millennium Eurasian History

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2009

ALAN STRATHERN
ALAN STRATHERN*
Affiliation:
Clare Hall, Herschel Road, Cambridge, CB3 9AL Email: as543@cam.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper explores how Sri Lanka might fit into Victor Lieberman's theory of Eurasian history. Lieberman's work to date has focused on the ‘protected rimlands’ which he sees as sharing the same historical path from a milieu of warring little kingdoms to increasingly large, solid states. But what happens in a land, such as Sri Lanka, which can be considered ‘protected’ before 1500, and ‘unprotected’ thereafter? Political integration and boundaries are first discussed, followed by ethnic and historical awareness before 1500. The third section sketches the chronological development of Buddhism before 1500, while the fourth considers the impact of the European interruption, and the fifth briefly looks at the results for 1600–1800. Along the way, some problems with applying the notion of ‘early modernity’ to Sri Lanka are disclosed.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 43 , Issue 4 , July 2009 , pp. 815 - 869
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agostinho de Azevedo (1960) ‘Estado da India e aonde tem o seu principio’ printed as anonymous document in Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa I: 197–263.Google Scholar
Ali, Daud (2000) ‘Royal Eulogy as World History: Re-thinking Copper-plate Inscriptions in Cola India’ in Inden, Ronald, Walters, Jonathan and Ali, Daud (eds),: Querying the Medieval. OUP, New York: 165–229.Google Scholar
Andaya, Barbara Watson (1999) ‘Religious Developments in Southeast Asia, c. 1500–1800’ in N. Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1, pt. 2. CUP, Cambridge. 164–227.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A. (2004) The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons. Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A.Beckert, Seven, Connelly, Matthew, Hofmeyr, Isabel, Kozol, Wendy, seed, Patricia. et al. (2006) ‘AHR Conversation: On Transnational History’ The American Historical Review 3: 140–64.Google Scholar
Biedermann, Zoltán (2005) ‘A aprendizagem de Ceilão. A presença Portuguesa em Sri Lanka entre estratégia talassocrática e planos de conquista territorial (1506–1598)’. Ph.D. diss. Universidade Nova, Lisbon and École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris.Google Scholar
Berry, Mary Elizabeth (1997) ‘Was Early Modern Japan Culturally Integrated?’ Modern Asian Studies, 31: 547–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackburn, Anne M. (2001) Buddhist Learning and Textual Practice in Eighteenth-Century Lankan Monastic Culture. Princeton University Press, Princeton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackburn, Anne M. (2003) ‘Localizing Lineage: Importing Higher Ordination in Theravadin South and Southeast Asia’ in John Clifford Holt et. al. (eds.), Constituting Communities: Theramda Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia. SUNY, Albany.Google Scholar
Boxer, C. R. (1969) ‘Portuguese and Spanish Projects for the Conquest of South-East Asia, 1580–1600’ Journal of Asian History 3: 118–36.Google Scholar
Carey, Peter (1997) ‘Civilization on Loan: The Making of an Upstart Polity: Mataram and its Successors, 1600–1830’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 711–734.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrithers, Michael (1987) ‘Buddhists without history’ Contributions to Indian Sociology 21: 165–168.Google Scholar
Charney, M. (1998) ‘Rise of a Mainland Trading State: Rakhine Under the Early Mrauk-U Kings, c. 1430–1603’ Journal of Burma Studies 3: 1–35.Google Scholar
Charney, M. (1999) ‘Where Jambudipa and Islamdom Converged: Religious Change and the Emergence of Buddhist Communalism in Early Modern Arakan’, PhD. Thesis, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Collins, Steven (1998) Nirvana and other Buddhist Felicities: Utopias of the Pali Imaginaire. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Conceição Flores, Maria da (1995) Os Portugueses e o Sião no século XVI. CNCDP, Lisbon.Google Scholar
Couto, Diogo do (1993) The History of Ceylon from the Earliest Times to 1600 A.D.: As Related by João de Barros and Diogo do Couto, (ed.) Ferguson, D.. Navrang Booksellers and Publishers, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Cunha-Rivara, J. H. da (ed.) (1857–77) Archivo Portuguez-Oriental, 8 vols. Nova Goa, vol. 3.Google Scholar
Deegalle, Mahinda (2003) ‘Preacher as Poet: Poetic Preaching as a monastic strategy in constituting communities in modern sri lanka and Thailand’ in John Chifford Holt et. al. (eds), 151–69.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (1990) ‘Peddling Trade, Elephants and Gems: Some Aspects of Sri Lanka's Trading Connections in the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries’ in de Silva, K. M., Kiribamune, S. and de Silva, C. R. (eds), Asian Panorama: Essays in Asian History, Past and Present. Vikas New Delhi.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (1995) ‘Sri Lanka in the early sixteenth century: Political conditions’; ‘Sri Lanka in the early sixteenth century: economic and social conditions’; ‘The rise and fall of the Kingdom of Sitawaka’, in University of Peradeniya History of Sri Lanka. Volume II, from c.1500 to c. 1800, (ed.) De Silva, K. M.. The University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya: 11–104.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (1997) Sri Lanka: A History. Vikas New Delhi.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (1998) ‘Algumas Reflexões sobre o Impacto Português na Religião entre os Singaleses durante os Séculos XVI e XVII’ in Oceanos 34: 104–116.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (2001–2002) ‘Portuguese interactions with Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the sixteenth century: Some parallels and divergences’ Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 27–28: 1–23.Google Scholar
De Silva, C. R. (2007) ‘Portugal and Sri Lanka: Recent Trends in Historiography’ in Jorge Manuel Flores (ed.), Re-exploring the Links: History and Constructed Histories Between Portugal and Sri Lanka Harrassowitz verlag & calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
De Silva, K. M. (ed.) (1995) University of Peradeniya History of Sri Lanka. Volume II, from c.1500 to c. 1800. The University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.Google Scholar
De Silva, S. (ed.) (1930) Rajaratnakaraya. Colombo.Google Scholar
Dewaraja, L. S. (2007) ‘The Cross Meets the Crescent: The Sri Lankan Experience 1505–1658’ in Re-exploring the Links: History and Constructed Histories Between Portugal and Sri Lanka, (ed.) Jorge Manuel Flores. Harrassowitz Verlag & Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Dharmadasa, K. N. O. (1992) Language, Religion and Ethnic Awareness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Eagleton, Terry (2006) ‘Making a Break’ in the London Review of Books, 9 March 2006.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, S. N., and Schluchter, Wolfgang (1998) ‘Introduction: Paths to Early Modernities—A Comparative View’ Daedalus 127: 1–18.Google Scholar
Epigraphia Zeylanica, Being Lithic and other Inscriptions of Ceylon (1904–43), Ceylon Archaeological Survey, Colombo, Government Press. (4 vols), vols. i-iii (ed.) Don Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe, vol. iv (ed.) H. W. Codrington and S. Paranavitana.Google Scholar
Flores, Jorge Manuel (1995) ‘The straits of Ceylon, 1524–1539: the Portuguese-Mappilla struggle over a strategic area’ Santa Barbara Portuguese Studies 2: 57–74.Google Scholar
Flores, Jorge Manuel (1998) Os Portugueses e o Mar de Ceilão: Trato, Diplomacia e Guerra (1498–1543) Edições, Cosmos. Lisbon.Google Scholar
Flores, Jorge Manuel (ed.) (2001) Os Olhos do Rei: Desenhos e Descrições Portuguesas da Ilha de Ceilão (1624, 1638). Lisbon.Google Scholar
Flores, Jorge Manuel (ed.) (2007) Re-exploring the Links: History and Constructed Histories Between Portugal and Sri Lanka. Harrassowitz Verlag & Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Wiesbaden.Google Scholar
Godakumbura, C. E. (1966) ‘Relations Between Burma and Ceylon’ Journal of the Burma Research Society XLIX: 145–62.Google Scholar
Gombrich, Richard and Obeyesekere, Gananath (1988) Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Goonewardena, K. W. (1977) ‘Kingship in Seventeenth-Century Sri Lanka’ Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 3: 1–32.Google Scholar
Guedes, Maria Ana Marques (1994) Interferência e Integração dos Portugueses na Birmânia, Ca. 1580–1630. Fundação Oriente Lisbon.Google Scholar
Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. (1979) Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early Medieval Sri Lanka. University of Arizona Press, Tuscon.Google Scholar
Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. (1990) ‘The people of the lion: the Sinhala identity and ideology in history and historiography’ in Jonathan Spencer (ed). Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Confled of Routledge, London. 1990: 45–86.Google Scholar
Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. (1995) Historiography in a Time of Ethnic Conflict: Construction of the Past in Contemporary Sri Lanka. Colombo.Google Scholar
Hall, Kenneth R. (1999) ‘Economic History of Early Southeast Asia’ in Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. I, part I: 183–275.Google Scholar
Hallisey, Charles (1988) ‘Devotion in the Buddhist Literature of Medieval Sri Lanka’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Hallisey, Charles (2003) ‘Works and Persons in Sinhala Literary Culture’ in Pollock, Sheldon (ed.), Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. University of California Press, Berkeley, 689–745.Google Scholar
Hastings, Adrian (1997) The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridges, University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschi, Caspar (2005), Wettkampf der Nationen: Konstruktionen einer deutschen Ehrgemeinschaft an der Wende vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit. Göttingen.Google Scholar
Holt, John Clifford (2004) The Buddhist Visnu: Religious Transformation, Politics and Culture. Columbia University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, John Clifford and Kinnard, Jacob N. and Walters, Jonathan S. (eds) (2003) Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia. SUNY, Albany.Google Scholar
Ilangasinha, H. B. M. (1992) Buddhism in Medieval Sri Lanka. Satguru, Delhi.Google Scholar
Inden, Ronald, and Walters, Jonathan and Ali, Daud (eds.) (2000) Querying the Medieval: Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia. OUP, New YorkGoogle Scholar
Ishii, Yoneo (1993) ‘Religious Patterns and Economic Change in Siam in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries’ in: 180–94. Reid, Antony (ed.), Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power and Belief. Cornell. University Press. New York.Google Scholar
Kaempfer, Engelbert (1996), A Description of the Kingdom of Siam 1690, trans. Scheuchzer, John Gaspar K., (first published in London 1727), Bangkok.Google Scholar
Keyes, Charles F. (1987) ‘Theravada Buddhism and its Worldly Transformations in Thailand: Reflections on the Work of S. J. Tambiah’ Contributions to Indian Sociology 21: 123–145.Google Scholar
Kiribamune, Sirima (1978) ‘Buddhism and Royal Prerogative in Medieval Sri Lanka’ in Smith, Bardwell L. (ed.), Religion and the Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Anima books, Chambersburg: 107–11.Google Scholar
Kiribamune, Sirima (1987) ‘Trade Patterns in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on the Politics of Medieval Sri Lanka’ Modern Sri Lanka Studies 2: 67–78Google Scholar
Knox, Robert (1989) An Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon, (ed.) Paulusz, J. H. O.., 2nd ed., including interleaved notes (2 vols.), vol. ii. Tisara Prakasakayo Publishers. Dehiwala.Google Scholar
Kulasuriya, Ananda S. (1976) ‘Regional Independence and Elite Change in the Politics of Fourteenth-Century Sri Lanka’ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2: 136–155.Google Scholar
Leider, Jacques P. (1999) ‘Arakan during the Mrauk U Period: The Political Success of a Buddhist Border State’, a paper from the ‘Historical Conference On Seventeenth Century Southeast Asia in the Context of Autonomous History’, 14 May 1999, Thailand.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (1984) Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (1987) ‘Reinterpreting Burmese History’ Comparative Studies on Society and History 29: 162–94.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (1997 a) ‘Introduction’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 449–61.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (1997 b) ‘Transcending East-West Dichotomies: State and Culture Formation in Six Ostensibly Disparate Areas’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 463–546.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (2003) Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, C.800–1830. Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland. CUP, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (forthcoming) ‘Protected Rimlands and Exposed Zones: Reconfiguring Premodern Eurasia’ Comparative Studies on Society and History, 50 (2008).Google Scholar
Lieberman, Victor (MSS) ‘South Asia; Patterns intermediate between those of China and the Protected Rimlands’.Google Scholar
Liyanagamage, Amaradasa (1968) The Decline of Polonnaruva and the Rise of Dambadeniya (circa 1180–1270 AD). Colombo.Google Scholar
Moore, R. I. (1997) ‘The Birth of Europe as a Eurasian Phenomenon’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 583–601.Google Scholar
Myint-U, Thant (2001) The Making of Modern Burma. CUP, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Nissan, Elizabeth (1997) ‘History in the Making: Anuradhapura and the Sinhala Buddhist Nation’ in Seneviratne, H. L.. (ed.), Identity, Consciousness and the Past. OUP, Delhi: 23–41.Google Scholar
Nissan, Elizabeth and Stirrat, R. L. (1990) ‘The Generation of Communal Identities’ in Spencer 1990: 19–44.Google Scholar
Obeyesekere, G. (1979) ‘Religion and Polity in Theravada Buddhism: Continuity and Change in a Great Tradition’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 21: 626–339.Google Scholar
Obeyesekere, G. (1995 a) ‘Buddhism, nationhood and cultural identity: a question of fundamentals’ in Fundamentalisms Comprehended, (eds) Marty, Martin E. and Appleby, R. Scott, University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 231–56.Google Scholar
Obeyesekere, G. (1995 b) ‘On Buddhist identity in Sri Lanka’, in Ethnic Identity: Creation, Conflict and Accommodation, (eds) Romanucci-Rossi, Lola and de Vos, George A.. London: 222–241.Google Scholar
Paranavitana, R. (ed.) (1999) Sitavaka Hatana. Colombo.Google Scholar
Perniola, V. (ed.) (1989–91), The Catholic Church in Sri Lanka, The Portuguese Period. Volume 1, 1505–1565, Volume II, 1566–1619, Volume III, 1620–1658. Tisara Prakasakayo Publishers, Dehiwala.Google Scholar
Pimenta, Nicholas (2004) ‘Jesuit letters on Pegu in the early seventeenth century’ SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research 2: 184–6.Google Scholar
Pollock, Sheldon (1998) ‘India in the Vernacular Millennium: Literary Culture and Polity, 1000–1500’ Daedalus 127:41–74.Google Scholar
Price, Barbara (1978) ‘Secondary State Formation: An Explanatory Model’ in Origins of the State, (eds) Cohen, Ronald and Service, Elman R.. Philadelphia: 161–86.Google Scholar
Queyroz, Fernão de (1992) The Temporal and Spiritual Conquest of Ceylon, trans. S. G. Perera, 3 vols. AES, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Queyroz, Fernão de (1916) Conquista Temporal e Espiritual de Ceylão, (ed.) Pieris, P. E.. Government of Ceylon, Colombo.Google Scholar
Raymond, Catherine. (1995) ‘Étude des relations religieuses entre le Sri Lanka et l'Arakan du XIIe au XVIIIe siècle: Documentation historique et évidences achéologiques’ in Journal Asiatique 282: 469–501.Google Scholar
Reid, Anthony (1988–93) Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (2 vols.). Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Reid, Anthony (ed.) (1993) Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power and Belief. Cornell University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Craig J. (1995) ‘A New Look at Old Southeast Asia’ Journal of Asian Studies 54: 419–46.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Frank E. and Hallisey, Charles (1989) ‘Buddhist Religion, Culture and Civilization’ in Buddhism and Asian History, (eds) Kitagawa, Joseph M. and Cummings, Mark D.. Macmillan New York: 3–28.Google Scholar
Rogers, John (2004 a) ‘Early British Rule and Social Classification in Lanka’ Modern Asian Studies 38: 625–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, John (2004 b). ‘Caste as a Social Category and Identity in Colonial Lanka’ The Indian and Economic Social History Review 41: 51–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Michael (2004) Sinhala Consciousness in the Kandyan period, 1590s–1815. Vijitha Yapa Publications, Colombo.Google Scholar
Seneviratne, H. L. (1978) Rituals of the Kandyan State. CUP, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Seneviratne, H. L. (1997) ‘Identity and the Conflation of Past and Present’ in Seneviratne (eds) Identity, Consciousness and the Past: Forging of Caste and Community in India and Sri Lanka. OUP, Delhi.Google Scholar
Sirisena, W. M. (1978), Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Brill, Leiden.Google Scholar
Smith, Bardwell L. (1978) ‘The Polonnaruva Period (ca. 993–1293 AD): A Thematic Bibliographical Essay’ in Smith (ed.), Religion and the Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Anima books, Chambersburg: 119–54.Google Scholar
Smith, Bardwell L. (1987) ‘The Pursuit of Equilibrium: Polonnaruva as a Ceremonial Centre’ in Smith. et al. (eds.), The City as Sacred Centre: Essays on Six Asian Contexts. Brill Leiden.60–87.Google Scholar
Somadasa, K. D. (1987–95) Catalogue of the Hugh Nevill Collection of Sinhalese Manuscripts in the British Library. (7 vols.). The British Library Publishing. London.Google Scholar
Spencer, Jonathan (ed.) (1990) Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict. Routledge. London.Google Scholar
Strathern, Alan (2004) ‘Theoretical Approaches to Sri Lankan History and the Early Portuguese Period’ Modern Asian Studies 38: 189–226.Google Scholar
Strathern, Alan (2005) A review of ‘Sinhala Consciousness in the Kandyan Period 1590s to 1815’ by Michael Roberts’ in Modern Asian Studies 39: 1013–1026.Google Scholar
Strathern, Alan (2007 a) Kingship and Conversion in Sixteenth-century Sri Lanka: Portuguese Imperialism in a Buddhist Land CUP, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Strathern, Alan (2007 b) ‘Transcendentalist intransigence: Why rulers rejected monotheism in early modern Southeast Asia and beyond’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 49: 358–83.Google Scholar
Strathern, Alan (forthcoming) ‘A Note on the Role of Sinhala group identity in the ‘Sinhala Rebellion’ against Bhuvanekabahu VI (1469–77)’ in Ethnic Studies Report.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1988) ‘State Formation and Transformation in Early Modern India and Southeast Asia’ Itinerario 12: 91–109.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1990) ‘The Tail Wags the Dog: Sub-imperialism and the Estado da Índia, 1570–1600’ in Subrahmanyam, (ed.), Improvising Empire: Portuguese Trade and Settlement in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1700. OUP, Delhi: 137–60.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1997) ‘Connected histories: notes towards a reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 735–62.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1998) ‘Hearing Voices: Vignettes of Early Modernity in South Asia’ Daedalus 127: 75–104.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2005 a) Explorations in Connected History: From the Tagus to the Ganges. OUP, Delhi.Google Scholar
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2005 b) Explorations in Connected History: Mughals and Franks. OUP, Delhi.Google Scholar
Tambiah, S. J. (1976) World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical Background. CUP, New York.Google Scholar
Tambiah, S. J. (1985) Culture, Thought and Social Action. Harvard. University Press, Cambridge Mass, London.Google Scholar
Tambiah, S. J. (1986) Ethnic fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Tambiah, S. J. (1987) ‘At the confluence of anthropology, history and indology’ Contributions to Indian Sociology 21: 187–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tambiah, S. J. (1992) Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics and Violence in Sri Lanka. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Tarling, Nicholas (1999) (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1, Part 2 CUP, Cambridge.Google Scholar
van Spilbergen, Joris (1997) Journal of Spilbergen, The First Dutch Envoy to Ceylon, 1602, (ed.) and trans. K. D. Paranavitana. Colombo.Google Scholar
Walters, Jonathan S. (1993) ‘Lovely Lady Lanka: A Tenth-Century Depiction’ Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 39 (publ. 1995): 45–56.Google Scholar
Walters, Jonathan S. (1996) The History of Kelaniya. Social Scientists Association, Colombo.Google Scholar
Walters, Jonathan S. (2000) ‘Buddhist History: The Sri Lankan Pali Vaüsas and Their Community’ in Ronald Inden, Jonathan Walters, and Daud Ali (eds) Querying the Medieval: Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia. New York. 99–164.Google Scholar
Werner, Michael., Zimmermann, Bénédicte (2006) ‘Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity’ History and Theory 45: 30–50.Google Scholar
Wickremesekera, Channa (2004) Kandy at War: Indigenous Military Resistance to European Expansion in Sri Lanka 1594–1818. Manohar, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Wyatt, David K. (1997) ‘Southeast Asia ‘Inside out’, 1300–1800: A Perspective from the Interior’ Modern Asian Studies 31: 689–709.Google Scholar
Xavier, Angela Barreto (2003) ‘A Invenção de Goa—Poder Imperial e Converções Culturais nos Séculos XVI e XVII’, Ph.D. diss., European University Institute, Florence.Google Scholar