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From Atheists to Empiricists: Reinterpreting the Stoics in the German Enlightenment
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 November 2021
Abstract
From the 1670s Stoic philosophy had been closely associated with atheism and the philosophy of Baruch Spinoza. However, in 1771 the historian Christoph Meiners published a short essay on the concept of apatheia that revived interest in Stoic philosophy within the German lands. Over the following years, he and his colleague Dieterich Tiedemann developed a novel interpretation claiming that Stoicism closely prefigured the philosophy of John Locke and represented a source of valuable philosophical ideas. Immanuel Kant, his allies, and later Idealists such as Hegel adopted this empiricist interpretation, despite their otherwise deep philosophical disagreements with Meiners and Tiedemann. Tracing eighteenth-century German debates around Stoicism reveals how it came to be considered a form of empiricism. As well as contributing to recent scholarship on the reception of Stoicism, the article suggests a major point of intersection between currents of the Enlightenment usually only treated separately.
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References
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2 Ibid., 133–4.
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4 Ibid., 113.
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6 Christoph Meiners, Allgemeine kritische Geschichte der ältern und neuern Ethik oder Lebenswissenschaft, 2 vols. (Göttingen, 1800–1), 1: 149.
7 Ibid., 175.
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53 St Augustine formulated this argument, but it became increasingly common in the early eighteenth century. Brooke, Philosophic Pride, 6–8.
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57 Ibid., 1: 908–53.
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61 Brooke, Philosophic Pride, 181–202.
62 Ibid., 148.
63 Jean-Henry-Samuel Formey, Histoire abrégée de la philosophie (Amsterdam, 1760), 148–53; Franz Nikolaus Steinacher, Grundriß der philosophischen Geschichte (Würzburg, 1774), 159–74; Italo Francesco Baldo, “Textbooks after Brucker,” in Gregorio Piaia and Giovanni Santinello, eds., Models of the History of Philosophy, English edn, vol. 3, The Second Enlightenment and the Kantian Age, trans. Hilary Siddons (Dordrecht, 2015), 475–513, at 477–82, 488–93.
64 Anon., “Stoische Philosophie,” in Johann Heinrich Zedler and Carl Günther Ludovici, eds., Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon Aller Wissenschafften und Künste, vol. 40, Sti–Suim (Leipzig and Halle, 1744), 306–46, at 307.
65 Ibid., 327–8.
66 Anon., Der Gesellige, eine moralische Wochenschrift 2/77 (Halle, 1748), 627.
67 Anon., Der Mensch, eine moralische Wochenschrift 1/34 (Halle, 1751), 306–7.
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77 Christian Böhr, Philosophie für die Welt: Die Popularphilosophie der deutschen Spätaufklärung im Zeitalter Kants (Stuttgart–Bad Cannstatt, 2003), passim.
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79 Böhr, Philosophie für die Welt, 19–23, 49–51.
80 As noted by one of the reviewers of this article, there is a good chance the essay began as a project for Heyne's seminar.
81 Christoph Meiners, “Ueber die Apathie der Stoiker,” Philologische Bibliothek 1/3 (Göttingen, 1771), 1–20, at 3–5.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid., 6–8.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid., 8–9.
87 Ibid., 14–15.
88 Ibid., 16
89 Christoph Meiners, Revision der Philosophie (Göttingen, 1772), 23, 54, 153–4, 161, 174.
90 Baldo, “Textbooks after Brucker,” 483–8.
91 Anton Friedrich Büsching, Grundriß einer Geschichte der Philosophie, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1772–4), 1: 283–4.
92 Ibid., 317–18, 329.
93 Ibid., 2: 523–4.
94 Ibid., 1: 288–90.
95 Ibid., 290–91, 313–14.
96 Ibid., 309–10.
97 Ibid., 2: 540–41. Meiners attacks Leibniz in “Betrachtungen über die Griechen, das Zeitalter des Plato, über den Timäus dieses Philosophen, und dessen Hypothese von der Weltseele,” in Meiners, Vermischte Philosophische Schriften, 1: 1–60, at 53–6.
98 Meiners, “Ueber die Apathie der Stoiker,” in Meiners, Vermischte Philosophische Schriften, 139–40.
99 Ibid., 130–31.
100 Ibid.
101 Liebmann, Otto, “Tiedemann, Dietrich,” in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 38 (1894), 276–7Google Scholar.
102 Anon., “Tiedemann (Dieterich),” in Ludwig Wachler, ed., Friedrich Wilhelm Strieder's Grundlage zu einer Hessischen Gelehrten- und Schriftsteller-Geschichte, vol. 16 (Marburg, 1812), 185–6.
103 Christian Gottlob Heyne, [untitled introduction,] in Dieterich Tiedemann, System der stoischen Philosophie, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1776), 1: xvi–xviii. Tiedemann's first name is sometimes given as Dietrich. However, he used Dieterich on all of his major publications. All footnotes follow the spelling given on the work in question.
104 Ibid., 2: 142.
105 Ibid., 1: 15, 91–2, 62, 85, 2: 58, 128, 131, 189, 199, 246, 3: 291, 343.
106 Ibid., 2: 82.
107 Ibid., 3: 191–217.
108 Ibid., 2: 127, 167.
109 Ibid., 1: 2.
110 Anon. [Dieterich Tiedemann], Versuch einer Erklärung des Ursprunges der Sprache (Riga, 1772), 18–19, 27, 18, 36–7, 38–40, 52, 64, 138, 187–8.
111 Tiedemann, System, 1: 84–5, 90–91.
112 Ibid., 3: 343–4.
113 Johann Georg Walch and Justus Christian Hennings, Philosophisches Lexicon, 4th edn, vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1775), 181.
114 Anon. review in Friedrich Nicolai, ed., Anhang zu dem fünf und zwanzigsten bis sechs und dreyßigsten Bande der allgemeinen deutschen Bibliothek, 5th division (Berlin, 1778), 3046–51; anon. review in Christoph Martin Wieland, ed., Der Teutsche Merkur 1 (Weimar, 1777), 95.
115 Friedrich Gedike, “Des Stoiker Cleanths Hymne, nebst Kommentar und zufälligem Räsonnement über stoische Theologie,” in Christian Konrad Wilhelm von Dohm, and Heinrich Christian Boie, eds., Deutsches Museum 2 (Leipzig, 1778), 20–21.
116 Anon. review in Auserlesene Bibliothek der neuesten deutschen Litteratur, vol. 12 (Lemgo, 1777), 360–83, at 383.
117 Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, from Thales to the Present Time (1863–1866), trans. George S. Morris, vol. 1 (New York, 1871), 185. This comment does not appear in the German original and was presumably added by Morris.
118 Anon. [Ernst Platner], “Versuch über die Einseitigkeit des stoischen und epikurischen Systems,” in Neue Bibliothek der schönen Wissenschaften und der freyen Künste, 19/1 (1776), 5–30, at 5.
119 Ernst Platner, Philosophische Aphorismen, nebst einigen Anleitungen zur philosophischen Geschichte, 1st edn, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1776–82), 1: 80, 213, 242, 248, 250, 311–12, 21, 359–60, 2: 10, 31–3, 164–6, 169–70, 275–6, 278–80, 412–14; Platner, Philosophische Aphorismen, 2nd edn, vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1784), 32–3, 262, 304, 371–72, 413, 420–21, 434, 485.
120 The most comprehensive single-volume account of both debates remains Frederick C. Beiser, The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte (Cambridge, MA, 1987).
121 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an den Herrn Moses Mendelssohn, 1st edn (Wrocław, 1785), 170–73.
122 Moses Mendelssohn, Morgenstunden, oder Vorlesungen über das Daseyn Gottes (Berlin, 1785), passim; Mendelssohn, An die Freunde Lessings: Ein Anhang zu Herrn Jacobi Briefwechsel über die Lehre des Spinoza (Berlin, 1786), passim.
123 Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), ed. and trans. Mary Gregor and Christine M. Korsgaard (Cambridge, 1998), 1–3.
124 Nussbaum, Martha C., “Kant and Stoic Cosmopolitanism,” Journal of Political Philosophy 5/1 (1997), 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. B. Schneewind, “Kantian and Stoic Ethics,” in Schneewind, Essays on the History of Moral Philosophy (Oxford, 2009), 277–96; Ulrike Santozki, Die Bedeutung antiker Theorien für die Genese und Systematik von Kants Philosophie (Berlin, 2006), 162–96.
125 A notable exception is Bonacina, Filosofia ellenistica, passim.
126 Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Come Forward as Science, trans. and ed. Gary Hatfield, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 2004; first published 1783), 100.
127 Immanuel Kant to Friedrich Victor Lebrecht Plessing, 3 Feb. 1784, and Immanuel Kant, Handschriftlicher Nachlaß (Metaphysik, Zweiter Teil), in Kant, Gesammelte Schriften (Akademie-Ausgabe), 29 vols. (Berlin, 1900–2009), 10: 363–4, 18: 317.
128 Gottlob August Tittel, Ueber Herrn Kant's Moralreform (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1786), 8–11.
129 Ibid., 23.
130 Ibid., 35–6.
131 Ibid., 10–11, 23–4.
132 Ibid., 40–41.
133 Karl Ameriks, “Introduction,” in Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Letters on the Kantian Philosophy (1786–1787), ed. Karl Ameriks and trans. James Hebbeler (Cambridge, 2006), ix-xxxv, at ix.
134 Reinhold, Letters, 101–2.
135 Ibid.
136 Ibid., 103.
137 Ibid., 110.
138 Ibid., 111.
139 Ibid., 102.
140 Ibid., 116–18.
141 Frederick C. Beiser, German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781–1801 (Cambridge, MA, 2002), 15–214.
142 Although dated 1788, the Second Critique appeared the previous December. Friedrich August Grunert to Immanuel Kant, Dec. 1787, in Kant, Gesammelte Schriften, 10: 506.
143 Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason (1787), ed. and trans. Mary Gregor (Cambridge, 2015), 51, 71, 90–91, 93–4, 102–3.
144 Ibid., 36.
145 Ibid., 36–7.
146 Ibid.
147 Ibid., 71.
148 Johann Gottfried Kiesewetter, Ueber den ersten Grundsatz der Moralphilosophie, 1st edn, vol. 1 (Berlin, 1788), 37–8, 64, 88–91.
149 Reinhold, Letters, 163.
150 Christian Friedrich von Ammon, Vindicatur morum doctrinae arbitrium liberum, reiecta libertate Stoica ethicae Kantianae (Göttingen, 1799).
151 Anton Greß, De Stoicorum supremo ethices principio Commentatio (Würzburg, 1797), 1–17; Carl Friedrich Ernst Ludwig, Freymüthige Gedanken über Fichte's Appellation gegen die Anklage des Atheismus und deren Veranlassung (Gotha, 1799), 79.
152 Johann Gottlieb Buhle, Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 1 (Göttingen, 1796), 453.
153 Ibid., 472.
154 Giuseppe Micheli, “Wilhelm Gottlieb Tennemann (1761–1819),” in Piaia and Santinello, The Second Enlightenment and the Kantian Age, 838–926, at 842–56.
155 Wilhelm Gottlieb Tennemann, Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. 4 (Leipzig, 1803), 155.
156 Ibid.
157 Ibid.
158 Johann Gottlieb Fichte, The Science of Knowledge (1794–1804), ed. and trans. Peter Heath and John Lachs (Cambridge, 1982), 245.
159 Ibid.
160 Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre, 2nd edn (Tübingen, 1802), 265; cf. Fichte, Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre (Leipzig, 1794).
161 G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy (1837), trans. Elizabeth Sanderson Haldane and Frances H. Simson, ed. Frederick C. Beiser, vol. 2 (Lincoln, NE, 1995), 249–54. On Hegel's interpretation of Stoicism see Terry Pinkard, Hegel's Phenomenology: The Sociality of Reason (Cambridge, 1996), 64–7, 80–81, 110–11, 147–50.
162 Hegel, Lectures on the History of Philosophy, 257–8.
163 Wunderlich, “Empirismus und Materialismus,” 85–7.
164 Joseph-Marie Degérando, Histoire comparée des systems de philosophie, relativement aux principes des connaissances humaines, vol. 1 (Paris, 1804), 173, 177–81; Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, 163, 191; Wilhelm Windelband, A History of Philosophy with Special Reference to the Formation and Development of Its Problems and Conceptions (1892), trans. James H. Tufts (New York, 1895), 207.
165 Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York, 1945), 258.
166 Ernst Bloch, Natural Law and Human Dignity (1961), trans. Dennis J. Schmidt (Cambridge, MA, 1987), 14–15; Hans Blumenberg, The Legitimacy of the Modern Age (1966), trans. Robert M. Wallace (Cambridge, MA, 1983), 258–9; Priest, British Empiricists, 17.
167 Adolf Bonhöffer, Epictet und die Stoa: Untersuchungen zur stoischen Philosophie (Stuttgart, 1890), 167–8, 187–203, 213–18, 227–8.
168 Dyson, Early Stoa, 145–51; John Sellars, Stoicism (London, 2006), 55–79.
169 Although a full discussion stands outside the remit of this article, as the concept of sociability in natural-law theories is associated with both empiricism and Stoic oikeiosis, the debate traced here might also bear on Kant's critique of previous accounts of this concept. Richard Tuck, The Rights of War and Peace: Political Thought and International Order from Grotius to Kant (Oxford, 2001), 12–14; Brooke, Philosophic Pride, 37–58.
170 Meiners, Geschichte der Ethik, 2: iii–iv.
171 Ibid., 1: 179.
172 Ibid.
173 Ibid., iv–vi, 5.
174 Ibid., 2: passim; Christoph Meiners, Grundriß der Seelen-Lehre (Lemgo, 1786), unpaginated preface.
175 Meiners, Grundriß der Geschichte der Menschheit, 16–80; Christoph Meiners, “Ueber die Natur der Afrikanischen Neger,” Göttingisches Historisches Magazin 6 (1790), 385–456.
176 Kant's views on race and their relation to his ethical and political ideas are much debated, but (despite his well-known racist comments regarding nonwhite peoples) the Groundwork's claim that all human beings should be treated as ends-in-themselves is usually read as precluding slavery and racial domination.
177 Meiners, Geschichte der Ethik, passim.
178 Meiners, Grundriß der Seelen-Lehre; Meiners, Grundriß der Geschichte der Weltweisheit.
179 Dieterich Tiedemann, Geist der Spekulativen Philosophie, 6 vols. (Marburg, 1791–7).
180 Ibid., 2: 431.
181 Dieterich Tiedemann, Theätet, oder über das menschliche Wissen (Frankfurt am Main, 1794); Tiedemann, Idealistische Briefe (Marburg, 1798); Tiedemann, Handbuch der Psychologie, ed. Ludwig Wachler (Leipzig, 1804).