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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 January 2024
1 For a full discussion of typology, see Chapter Two in Catherine Brown Tkacz, The Key to the Brescia Casket: Typology and the Early Christian Imagination (Études Augustiniennes – Antiquité, 165 = Christianity and Judaism in Antiquity, 15), Turnhout ‐ Notre Dame, 2001.
2 The starting point of all research is ‘an encounter … with reality’: Tkacz, Michael W., ‘Scientific Reporting, Imagination, and Neo‐Aristotelian Realism’, The Thomist 68.4 (2004), pp. 531‐43CrossRefGoogle Scholar at pp. 543, 532. While Tkacz is treating scientific experimentation specifically, his discussion applies equally to the structure of all investigation, including theological ones, and his point that reality is the starting point of consideration is universally valid. On the ‘implicit realism’ of scientific researchers see p. 536. See also Dougherty, Jude P., ‘Abstraction and Imagination in Human Understanding’, in Nature and Scientific Method, ed. Dahlstrom, Daniel O. (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1991), pp. 51‐62Google Scholar.
3 For etymologies, see, e.g., Goppelt, L., ‘Typos, antitypos, typikos, hypotyposis’, in Kittel, G. and Friedrich, G. (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 9 vols.Google Scholar, Grand Rapids, 1964‐74, 8:246‐259; Lee, E. K., ‘Words Denoting ‘Pattern’ in the New Testament’, New Testament Studies 8 (1962), pp. 166‐173CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 While Casey was writing specifically of the ‘atomistic’ use of a single word in order to recall an entire scriptural passage, his remark applies generally to the Christian use of Jewish techniques: Casey, Maurice, ‘Son of Man’: The Interpretation and Influence of Daniel 7 (London: SPCK, 1979), p. 215Google Scholar; see also Doeve, J. W., Jewish Hermeneutics in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts (Assen 1953) 134Google Scholar.
5 See Catherine Brown Tkacz, ‘Aneboesen phonei megalei: Susanna and the Synoptic Passion Narratives’, Gregorianum (forthcoming), at notes 151‐54; and idem, ‘The Doctrinal Context for Interpreting Women as Types of Christ’, Studia Patristica, ed. Yarnell and Wiles (forthcoming), pp. 37‐41.
6 See the section below on ‘Women as Types of Christ’.
7 Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Iconoclasm, East and West’, New Blackfriars 85, no. 999 (2004) 542‐50CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 For the suggestion that it promotes violence, see Sölle, Dorothee, Suffering, trans. Kalin, Everett (Philadelphia, 1975) 28‐32Google Scholar; and Newman, Barbara, From Virile Woman to WomanChrist: Studies in Medieval Religion and Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1995) 106 and 276CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 For a practical example of how to preach on one such woman today, see Catherine Brown Tkacz, ‘“Here Am I, Lord”: Preaching Jephthah's Daughter as a Type of Christ’, The Downside Review (Forthcoming 2006). For remarks on modern presentation of Judith as a type of Christ, see McNeil, Brian, ‘Reflections on the Book of Judith’, Downside Review 96 (1978), pp. 199‐207CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Catherine Brown Tkacz, ‘Women and the Church in the New Millennium’, Saint Vladimir's Theological Quarterly (in press).
10 John 5:39, 46‐7; Luke 24:27 + 32.
11 Jonah: Matt. 12:39‐40, Luke 11:29‐32. Jacob: John 1:51, 3:13, 6:63 (cf. Gen. 28:12).
12 David's men ate the bread of propitiation; Jesus' disciples ate the grain in the field on the sabbath: cf 1 Kings 21:1‐6 to Matt. 12:1‐6, Mark 2:23‐28, Luke 6:1‐5. Jonah and Solomon: Matt. 12:41‐42.
13 John 3:14‐15, alluding to Num. 21:5‐9.
14 ‘Jesus Christ, Son of Man’, general audience of April 29, 1987, in A Catechesis on the Creed, vol. 2: Jesus: Son and Savior (Boston: Pauline Books & Media, 1996), pp. 141‐45Google Scholar, at p. 144.
15 The parallels with Jonah's ordeal can be extended to include Jesus' descent into hell: See Pitstick, Alyssa Helene, Lux in Tenebris: The Traditional Catholic Doctrine of Christ's Descent into Hell and the Theological Opinion of Hans Urs von Balthasar (Grand Rapids: Errdmanns, forthcoming)Google Scholar.
16 As the Creed expresses it: ‘And he ascended into heaven (Kai anelthonta eis tous ouranous).
17 Greek Pascha, the transliteration of Hebrew pâsach‘to pass over’: See An Intermediate Greek‐English Lexicon founded upon the Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek‐English Lexicon (Oxford, 1889, reprint 1975) s.v. Pascha.
18 See also Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Singing Women's Words as Sacramental Mimesis’, Recherches de Théologie et Philosophie Médiévales 70.2 (2003), pp. 275‐328CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at p. 286. For the first Passover, see Exod. 12:2, 14.
19 Augustine, Letter 55 to Januarius, 16.29, and Leo the Great, Sermon 75, develop St. Paul's language in 2 Cor. 3:3‐8 and Rom. 7:6, 8:2, about the finger of God, as used in Exod. 31:18 and Deut. 9:10: McArthur, A. Allan, The Evolution of the Christian Year (London, 1953), 143‐46Google Scholar.
20 John 19:24, 36, 27 quote Ps. 21:19 (psalm), Exod. 12:46 (Law), and Zach. 12:10 (prophet), respectively.
21 Matt. 26:1‐5, Mark 14:1.
22 Matt. 27:35, John 19:36, Exod. 12:46, Num. 9:12. See also Sabourin, L., ‘Isaac and Jesus in the Targums and the New Testament’, Religious Studies Bulletin 1 (1981), pp. 37‐45Google Scholar, at 43‐44.
23 Adam as a type of Christ: Rom. 5:14, 1 Cor. 15:22, 45.
24 Esp. Heb. 11:17‐20; Daly, R. J., Christian Sacrifice: The Judaeo‐Christian Background before Origen, Washington, D.C., 1978, pp. 175‐186Google Scholar.
25 On Melchizedek, see Heb. 6:20‐7:22, with Heb. 7:17 + 21 quoting two parts of Ps. 109:4.
26 See, e.g., Glasson, T. F., Moses in the Fourth Gospel, London, 1963Google Scholar; and Jeremias, J., ‘Moysis’, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 10 vols., Grand Rapids, 1964‐76,Google Scholar 4a:848‐73 at 859‐861, 867.
27 1 Pet. 3:20‐21; Rom. 6:3: Tkacz, ‘Singing Women's Words’, pp. 275‐76, 283‐88.
28 Translation by Payne, Randall Merle, ‘Christian Worship in Jerusalem in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: The Development of the Lectionary, Calendar and Liturgy’ (Ph.D. diss.: The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1980), pp. 193‐94.Google Scholar
29 Cyril of Jerusalem, Mystagogia, 2.6.6. My translation.
30 The following paragraph condenses Tkacz, ‘Singing Women's Words’, pp. 285‐86.
31 Also Matt. 10:38. See Tkacz, ‘Singing Women's Words’, esp. pp. 283‐88.
32 Enarratio in Psalmum 32.2.1.2.13 (CCL 38:248).
33 Enchiridion 14.97 (CCL 46:78). The scriptures quoted are Gal. 5:24, Rom. 6:4, Col. 3:1‐3.
34 Oratio de incarnatione Verbi 54.3, ed. Kannengiesser, Charles, Chrétiennes, Sources, 199 (Paris, 1973), 458Google Scholar. See also ‘Theosis’, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, 3 vols., ed. Kazhdan, Alexander P. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 3:2069‐70Google Scholar; and Eric D. Perl, ‘“… That Man Might Become God’: Central Themes in Byzantine Theology', 39‐57 in Heaven on Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium, ed. Safran, Linda (University Park, Penn., 1998)Google Scholar.
35 Tkacz, ‘Aneboesen’, at notes 140‐54.
36 E.g., John Chrysostom, On Luke (PG 61:781‐84). Romanos the Melode used this imagery in a hymn also.
37 Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Jesus and the Spiritual Equality of Women’, Fellowship of Catholic Scholars Quarterly 24.4 (Fall 2001), pp. 24‐29.Google Scholar The spiritual equality of the sexes was already expressed in the Torah; Jesus simply gave the doctrine emphasis. In turn it was taught by the Fathers, including Clement of Alexandria, John Chrystostom, Irenaeus, Augustine, and Isidore: Tkacz, ‘Singing Women's Words’, 279; Ranft, Patricia, Women and Spiritual Equality in Christian Tradition (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), 1‐52Google Scholar.
38 Tkacz, ‘Aneboesen’ (see above at note 5).
39 For details of the patristic sermons, see Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Susanna victrix, Christus victor: Lenten Sermons, Typology, and the Lectionary’, Speculum Sermonis, ed. Donavin, Georgiana, Utz, Richard, Nederman, Cary (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004), pp. 55‐79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
40 See Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Women as Types of Christ: Susanna and Jephthah's Daughter’, Gregorianum 85.2 (2004), pp. 281‐314Google Scholar; and Tkacz, ‘Here Am I, Lord’ (as in note 9 above).
41 Tkacz, ‘Women as Types of Christ’, pp. 280, 286‐87, 307, 310‐11.
42 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd ed., Vatican City, 2000, §128.
43 To ton hagion agion thusiasterion: 10.4.44. Deferrari translates the phrase as ‘the holy of holies, the altar’, thus following the Greek word order and conveying the meaning exactly: Deferrari, Roy J., trans., Ecclesiastical History, 2 vols., Fathers of the Church vols. 19 + 29 (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1953, 1955)Google Scholar, vol. 2, p. 256.
44 This is clearly enunciated in the fourth‐century baptismal catecheses and other writings of Cyril of Jerusalem, John Chrysostom, and Theodore of Mopsuestia: Tkacz, ‘Singing Women's Words’, pp. 275‐76, 284‐87.
45 ‘Liturgiam authenticam: On the use of Vernacular Languages in the Publication of the Books of the Roman Liturgy’, Fifth Instruction ‘For the Right Implementation of the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy of the Second Vatican Council (Sacrosanctum Concilium, art. 36)’, by the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, issued 28 March 2001, par. 41.
46 The Lectionary originally and for several centuries attributed this prayer, voiced by Mordecai, to Esther, evidently in order to make explicit Esther's parallel to Christ.
47 Tkacz, ‘Women as Types of Christ: Susanna and Jephthah's Daughter’ (above at note 40), at pp. 280, 286‐87, 307, 310‐11; and Tkacz, ‘Susanna victrix, Christus victor’.
48 Thayer, Anne T., Patience, Preaching and the Coming of the Reformation (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003)Google Scholar; see also the review of this book by Muessig, Carolyn in Medieval Sermon Studies 48 (2004) 99‐101Google Scholar.
49 For typology from the Reformation through the twentieth century see, e.g., Davidson, Richard M., Typology in Scripture: A Study of Hermeneutical Typos Structures (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 1981), pp. 27‐93Google Scholar. For Luther's chilling effect on typology, see Tkacz, Catherine Brown, ‘Susanna as a Type of Christ’, Studies in Iconography 29 (1999), pp. 101‐153Google Scholar, at 129.
50 ‘für seine Lehre von der Rechtfertigung allein’: Ohly, op. cit., p. 3.
51 Ohly, Friedrich, Gesetz und Evangelium: Zur Typologie bei Luther und Lucas Cranach; Zum Blutstrahl der Gnade in der Kunst (Munster: Aschendorff, 1985)Google Scholar, e.g., colored foldout plate 13: Mitteltafel des Altarwerks der Stadtkirche zu Weimar (1555) by Lucas Cranach der Älter und der Junger, with brazen serpent in right background of Crucifixion. See also figs. 1‐2 (pp. 3‐4) and 4‐6 (pp. 10, 12 15).
52 For a rare, earlier Ten‐Commandments Altar of 1410‐20, see Schiller, Gertrud, Iconography of Christian Art, trans. Seligman, Janet (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society, Ltd., 1971‐72)Google Scholar, 4.1:193 and b/w fig. 296 on p. 304. For examples of typology depicted in Catholic churches on high altars, pulpits, rood screens, baptismal fonts, choir stalls, and tapestries hung in churches, On the use of typology in Catholic art of the time, see Bangs, Jeremy Dupertuis, Church Art and Architecture in the Low Countries before 1566 (Ann Arbor: Edwards Brothers, 1997), pp. 27, 29, 35‐38, 61‐62, 78, 113, 153‐4Google Scholar, with plates.
53 He made this remark during a conversation at the Annual Meeting of the American Catholic Philosophical Association, at the University of Notre Dame, November, 2005.
54 See Tkacz, ‘Iconoclasm’ (as in note 7 above).
55 Ranft, Women and Spiritual Equality (as in note 37 above), pp. 213, 215, 229.
56 Semler, Johan S., Versuch einer freiern theologischern Lehrart (Halle: C. H. Hemmerde, 1777)Google Scholar: Davidson, Typology in Scripture, 37‐38.
57 Davidson, Typology in Scripture, pp. 36‐37.
58 Marsh, Herbert, Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible (Cambridge: C. & J. Rivington, 1828), p. 373Google Scholar, quoted by Davidson, op. cit., p. 37, who also identifies several adherents to Marsh's position.
59 Bultmann, Rudolf, ‘Ursprung und Sinn der Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, Theologische Literaturzeitung 75 (1950), pp. 205‐12Google Scholar, reprinted in his Exegetica (Tübingen, 1967), 369‐80Google Scholar.
60 Bultmann, ‘Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, 205 et passim. See also Davidson, Typology in Scripture, p. 59; see also pp. 56‐65 on Goppelt and van Rad.
61 With Passover, an annual ritual had been established (Exod. 12). On Sinai daily, weekly, and annual sacrifices were defined. Morning and evening sacrifice: Exod. 29:38‐42. Sabbath sacrifices: Exod. 31. The High Priest's annual entrance into the holy of holies: Exod. 30:10, Lev. 16, Heb. 9:7.
62 I discuss Bultmann's comments on the Gospel of John. He also treats, quite similarly, Jesus' self‐comparison with Jonah (Matt. 12:40– see above at note 11), his comparison of John the Baptist with Elijah (Matt. 11: 14, Mk 9:12), and his self‐comparison with Elijah (Mk 6:14f, 8:28): Bultmann, ‘Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, col. 210.
63 Personen, Eriegnissen oder Einrightungen: Bultmann, ‘Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, col. 205.
64 ‘In recht freier Weise nimmt Joh. 3, 14f. auf die Mose‐Christus‐Typologie Bezug: wie Mose die Schange in der Wüste “erhört” hat, so wird der “Menschensohn”– nicht etwa eine analoge Tat tun, sondern selbst “erhöht” werden.’: Bultmann, ‘Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, col. 209.
65 ‘Diesen Stellen liegt also wohl Typologie zugrunde; aber der Evangelist führt das typologische Denken mit ihm spielend, ad absurdum’: Bultmann, ‘Typologie als hermeneutische Methode’, col. 210. Emphasis added.
66 Scholars arguing against the authenticity of the ‘Son of Man’ passages include, notably, Vermes, Casey (as in note 4 above), and Lindars. See also the denial of messianic meaning: Di Lella, Daniel, p. 87
67 Casey, ‘Son of Man’, pp. 58‐61.
68 For a rigorous study of the scholarship and a defense of the phrase ‘Son of Man’, see Caragounis, Chrys C., The Son of Man: Vision and Interpretation (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1986)Google Scholar.
69 ‘Jesus Christ, Son of Man’, general audience of April 29, 1987, in A Catechesis on the Creed, vol. 2: Jesus: Son and Savior (Boston: Pauline Books & Media, 1996), pp. 141‐45Google Scholar.
70 Ramshaw, G., ‘The First Testament in Christian Lectionaries’, Worship 64 (1990), pp. 494‐510Google Scholar.
71 While there are parallels with pagan allegorical interpretation of texts, Jewish typological exegesis uniquely and consciously focused on the Messiah.
72 The Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (May 24, 2001), II.A. par. 22.
