Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-sh8wx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-22T15:45:26.830Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Essential and Trans-Fatty Acids in Nutrition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 December 2007

T. A. B. Sanders
T. A. B. Sanders
Affiliation:
Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, King's College, University of London, Campden Hill Road, LondonW8 7AH
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. As you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Research Article
Information
Nutrition Research Reviews , Volume 1 , Issue 1 , January 1988 , pp. 57 - 78
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 1988

References

REFERENCES

Aaes-Jorgensen, E. (1958). Essential fatty acid deficiency. III. Effects of conjugated isomers of dienoic and trienoic fatty acids in rats. Journal of Nutrition 66, 465–483.Google Scholar
Abeywardena, M. Y., McLennan, P. L. & Charnock, J. S. (1987 a). Diet and cardiac arrhythmia: involvement of eicosanoids. Proceedings of the AOCS Short Course of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, pp. 62–64 [Lands, W. E. M., editor]. Champaign, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Abeywardena, M. Y., McLennan, P. L. & Charnock, J. S. (1987 b). (Long-term saturated fat supplementation in the rat causes an increase in PG12/TXB2 ratio of platelet and vessel wall compared to n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Atherosclerosis 66, 181–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. T., Grande, F. & Keys, A. (1961). Hydrogenated fats in the diet and lipids in the serum of man. Journal of Nutrition 75, 388–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration (1988). Secondary prevention of vascular disease by prolonged antiplatelet treatment. British Medical Journal 296, 320–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aveldano, M. (1987). A novel group of very long chain polyenoic fatty acids in dipolyunsaturated phosphatidylcholine from vertebrate retina. Journal of Biological Chemistry 262, 1172–1179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bang, H. O. & Dyerberg, J. (1980). Lipid metabolism and ischemic heart disease in Greenland Eskimos. Advances in Nutrition Research 3, 1–40.Google Scholar
Barlow, S. M. & Duthie, I. F. (1984). An evaluation of the safety of partially hydrogenated marine oils (PHMO) in the human diet. Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews A 54, 17–30.Google Scholar
Beare-Rogers, J. L. (1983). Trans- and positional isomers of common fatty acids. Advances in Nutrition Research 5, 171–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernsohn, J. & Spitz, F. J. (1974). Linoleic and linolenic dependency of some membrane-bound enzymes after lipid deprivation in rats. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 57, 293–298.Google Scholar
Bittiner, S. B., Tucker, W. F. G., Cartwright, I. & Bleehen, S. S. (1988). A double-blind, randomised, placebocontrolled trial of fish oil in psoriasis Lancet i, 378–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjerve, K. S., Fischer, S. & Alme, K. (1987 a). Alpha-linolenic acid deficiency in man. Effect of ethyl linolenate on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid composition and biosynthesis of prostanoids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, 570–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjerve, K. S., Mostad, I. L. & Thoresen, L. (1987 b). Alpha-linolenic acid deficiency in patients on long-term gastric-tube feeding: estimation of linolenic acid and long-chain unsaturated n-3 fatty acid requirement in man. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 66–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booyen, J., Louwrens, C. C. & Katzeff, I. E. (1988). The role of unnatural trans and cis unsaturated fatty acids in the epidemiology of coronary artery disease. Medical Hypotheses 85C, 21–23.Google Scholar
British Nutrition Foundation (1987). Trans fatty acids. Report of the British Nutrition Foundation's Task Force. London: British Nutrition Foundation.Google Scholar
Brown, W. R., Hansen, A. E., Burr, G. O. & McQuarrie, I. (1938). Effects of prolonged use of extremely low-fat diet on an adult human subject. Journal of Nutrition 16, 511–524.Google Scholar
Bruckner, G., Trimbo, S., Goswami, S. & Kinsella, J. E. (1983). Dietary trilinoelaidate: effects on hematological parameters, serum eicosanoids and tissue fatty acid composition in rats. Journal of Nutrition 113, 704–713.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caster, W. O. & Ahn, P. (1963). Electrocardiographic notching in rats deficient in EFA. Science 139, 1213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapkin, R. S., Ziboh, V. A. & McCullogh, J. L. (1987). Dietary influences of evening primrose and fish oil on the skin of essential fatty acid-deficient guinea pigs. Journal of Nutrition 117, 1360–1370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christophersen, B. O., Norseth, J., Thomassen, M. S., Cristiansen, E. N., Norum, K. R., Osmundsen, H. & Bremer, J. (1982). Metabolism and metabolic effects of C22:1 fatty acids with special reference to cardiac lipidosis. In Nutritional Evaluation of Long-chain Fatty Acids in Fish Oil, pp. 89–139 [Barlow, S. M. and Stansby, M. E., editors]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cortese, C., Levy, Y., Janus, E. D., Turner, P. R., Rao, S. N., Miller, N. E. & Lewis, B. (1983). Modes of action of lipid-lowering diets in man: studies of apolipoprotein B kinetics in relation to fat consumption and dietary fatty acid composition. European Journal of Clinical In$$$ 13, 79–85.Google Scholar
Crawford, M. A. & Sinclair, A. J. (1972). Nutritional $$$ the evolution of mammalian brain. In Lipids, Malnutrition and the Developing Brain, pp. 267–292 $$$ and Knight, J., editors]. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Culp, B. R., Lands, W. E. M., Lucches, B. R., Pitt, R. & Romson, J. (1980). The effect of dietary supplementation of fish oil on experimental myocardial infarction. Prostaglandins 20, 1021–1031.Google Scholar
de Iongh, H., Beerthuis, R. K., den Hartog, C., Dalderup, L. M. & van der Spek, P. A. F. (1965). The influence of some dietary fats on serum lipids in man. Bibliotheca Nutritio et Dieta 7, Suppl., 137–152.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1984). Diet and Cardiovascular Disease. Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Report of the Panel on Diet in Relation to Cardiovascular Disease. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Dommes, V., Baumgart, C. & Kunau, W. H. (1981). Degradation of unsaturated fatty acids in peroxisomes. Journal of Biological Chemistry 256, 8259–8262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dratz, E. A. & Deese, A. J. (1986). The role of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6ω3) in biological membranes: examples from photoreceptors and model membrane bilayers. In Health Eflects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods, pp. 319–351 [Simopoulos, A. P., Kifer, R. R. and Martin, R. E., editors]. New York: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dyerberg, J. & Bjerregaard, P. (1987). Mortality from ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease in Greenland. In Proceedings of the AOCS Short Course on Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, pp. 2–8 [Lands, W. E. M., editor]. Champaign Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Elliot, W. J., Morrison, A. R., Sprecher, H. W. & Needleman, P. (1985 a). The metabolic transformations of columbinic acid and the effect of topical application of the major metabolites on rat skin. Journal of Biological Chemistry 260, 987.Google Scholar
Elliot, W. J., Sprecher, H. & Needleman, P. (1985 b). Physiologic effects of columbinic acid and its metabolites on rat skin. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 835, 158–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enig, M. G., Munn, R. J. & Keeney, M. (1978). Dietary fat and cancer trends: a critique. Federation Proceedings 37, 2215–2220.Google Scholar
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (1985). Health Aspects of Dietary Trans Fatty Acids. Bethesda, Maryland: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.Google Scholar
Fiennes, R. N., Sinclair, A. J. & Crawford, M. A. (1973). Essential fatty acid studies in primates: linolenic acid requirements of capuchins. Journal of Medical Primatology 2, 1253–1254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischer, F., Vischer, A., Preac-Mursic, V. & Weber, P. C. (1987). Dietary docosahexaenoic acid is retroconverted in man to eicosapentaenoic acid, which can quickly be transformed into prostaglandin 13. Prostaglandins 34, 367–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodnight, S. H., Harris, W. S., Connor, W. E. & Illingworth, D. R. (1982). Polyunsaturated fatty acids, hyperlipidemia, and thrombosis, Arteriosclerosis 2, 87–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottenbos, J. J. (1983). Biological effects of trans fatty acids. In Dietary Fats and Health, American Oil Chemists' Society Monograph no. 10. pp. 375–390. [Perkins, E. G. & Visek, W. J., editors]. Champaign, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Hafiez, A. A. (1974). Prostaglandin E2 prevents impairment of fertility in rats fed a diet deficient in essential fatty acids. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 38, 273–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagve, T. & Christophersen, B. O. (1987). Sex-related differences in desaturation and chain elongation of essential fatty acids studied in isolated rat hepatocytes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 920, 149–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, H. S. & Jensen, B. (1985). Essential function of linoleic acid esterified in acylglucosylceramide and acylceramide in maintaining the epidermal water permeability barrier. Evidence from feeding studies with oleate, linoleate, arachidonate, columbinate and α-linolenate. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 834, 357–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, H. S., Jensen, B. & von Wettstein-Knowles, P. (1986). Apparent in vivo retroconversion of dietary arachidonic to linoleic acid in essential fatty acid-deficient rat. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 878, 284–287.Google Scholar
Harris, W. S., Connor, W. E. & Lindsey, S. (1984). Will dietary omega-3 fatty acids change the composition of human milk? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 40, 780–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartog, J. M., Verdouw, P. D., Klompe, M. & Lamers, J. M. J. (1987). Dietary mackerel oil in pigs: effect on plasma lipids, cardiac sarcolemmal phospholipids and cardiovascular parameters. Journal of Nutrition 117, 1371–1378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirai, A., Hamazaki, T., Terano, T., Nishikawa, T., Tamura, Y., Kumagai, A. & Sajiki, J. (1980). Eicosapentaenoic acid and platelet function in Japanese. Lancet ii, 1132–1133.Google Scholar
Hock, C. E., Holaham, M. A. & Reibel, D. K. (1987). Effect of dietary fish oil on myocardial phospholipids and myocardial ischemic damage. American Journal of Physiology 252, H554–H560.Google ScholarPubMed
Hohl, C. M. & Rosen, P. (1987). The role of arachidonic acid in rat heart cell metabolism. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 921, 356–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollander, D. & Tarnawski, A. (1986). Dietary essential fatty acids and the decline in peptic ulcer disease – a hypothesis. Gut 27, 239–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holman, R. T. (1985). Influence of hydrogenated fats on the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids. In The Role of Fats in Human Nutrition, pp. 48–61 [Padley, F. B. and Podmore, J., editors]. Chichester: Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Holman, R. T., Johnson, S. B. & Hatch, T. F. (1982). A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35, 617–623.Google Scholar
Holman, R. T., Smythe, L. & Johnson, S. (1979). Effect of sex and age on fatty acid composition of human serum lipids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 32, 2390–2399.Google Scholar
Hornstra, G. (1982). Dietary fats, prostanoids and arterial thrombosis. Developments in Hematology and Immunology, vol. 4. London: Martinus Nijhoff.Google Scholar
Houtsmuller, U. M. T. (1973). Differentiation in the biological activity of polyunsaturated fatty acids. In Dietary Lipids and Postnatal Development, pp. 145–155 [Galli, C., Jacini, G. and Pecile, A., editors]. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Houtsmuller, U. M. T. (1981). Columbinic acid, a new type of essential fatty acid. Progress in Lipid Research 20, 889–896.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houtsmuller, U. M. T. & Van der Beek, A. (1981). Effects of topical application of fatty acids. Progress in Lipid Research 20, 219–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulan, H. W., Kramer, J. K. G. & Corner, A. H. (1977). The effect of dietary fatty acid balance on myocardial lesions in male rats. Lipids 12, 951–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, J. E. & Applewhite, T. H. (1986). Isomeric fatty acids in the US diet: levels and health perspectives. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 44, 707–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, J. E., Ip, C. & Hollenbach, E. J. (1985). Isomeric fatty acids and tumorogenesis: a commentary on recent work. Nutrition and Cancer 7, 199–209.Google Scholar
Illingworth, D. R., Harris, W. S. & Connor, W. E. (1984). Inhibition of low density lipoprotein synthesis by dietary omega-3 fatty acids in humans. Arteriosclerosis 4, 270–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Illingworth, D. R., Sundberg, E. E., Becker, N., Connor, W. E. & Alaupovic, P. (1981). Influence of saturated, monounsaturated and ω6-PUFA on LDL metabolism in man. Arteriosclerosis 1, 380.Google Scholar
Ip, C. (1987). Fat and essential fatty acid in mammary carcinogenesis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 45, 218–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, K. J. & Ewan, L. M. (1967). Promotion of myopathy by polyunsaturated fatty acids in cod liver oil. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry 45, 1873–1880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karmali, R. A. (1987). Omega-3 fatty acids and cancer: a review. In Proceedings of the AOCS Short Course on Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, pp. 222–232 [Lands, W. E. M., Editor]. Champaign, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Keys, A. (1970). Coronary heart disease in seven countries. Circulation 41, 1–211.Google Scholar
Knapp, H. R., Reilly, A. G., Allesandrini, P. & Fitzgerald, G. A. (1985). In vivo indexes of platelet and vascular function during fish oil administration in patients with atherosclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine 314, 937–942.Google Scholar
Kramer, J. K. G., Farnworth, E. R. & Thompson, B. K. (1985). Cardiac lipid changes in rats fed oils enriched in saturates and their apparent relationship to focal heart lesions. Lipids 20, 635–644.Google Scholar
Kremer, J. M., Jubix, W., Michalek, A., Rynese, R. I., Bartholmew, L. E., Bigaouette, J., Timchlak, M., Beeler, D. & Leninger, L. (1987). Fish-oil fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blind, controlled, crossover study. Annals of Internal Medicine 106, 497–503.Google Scholar
Kritchevsky, D. (1982). Trans fatty acid effects in experimental atherosclerosis. Federation Proceedings 41, 2813–2817.Google ScholarPubMed
Kromhout, D., Bosschieter, E. B. & Coulander, C. L. (1985). The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary disease. New England Journal of Medicine 312, 1205–1209.Google Scholar
Kummerow, F. A. (1986). Dietary effects of trans fatty acids. Journal of Environmental Pathology Toxicology and Oncology 6, 123–149.Google ScholarPubMed
Laine, D. C., Snodgrass, C. M., Dawson, E. A., Ener, M. A., Kuba, K. & Frantz, I. D. (1982). Lightly hydrogenated soy oil versus other vegetable oils as a lipid-lowering dietary constituent. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 35, 683–690.Google Scholar
Lamptey, M. S. & Walker, B. L. (1976). A possible essential role for dietary linolenic acid in the development of the young rat. Journal of Nutrition 106, 86–93.Google Scholar
Leaf, A. & Weber, P. C. (1988). Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids. New England Journal of Medicine 318, 549–557.Google Scholar
Leat, W. M. F., Curtis, R., Millchamp, N. & Cox, R. W. (1986). Retinal function in rats and guinea-pigs reared on diets low in essential fatty acids and supplemented with linoleic or linolenic acids. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 30, 166–174.Google Scholar
Leat, W. M. F. & Northrop, C. A. (1981). Effect of dietary linoleic and linolenic acids on gestation and parturition in the rat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 66, 99–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leat, W. M. F., Northrop, C. A., Harrison, F. A. & Cox, R. W. (1983). Effect of dietary linoleic and linolenic acids on testicular development in the rat. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology 68, 221–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leaver, H. A., Lytton, F. D., Dyson, F. D., Watson, M. L. & Mellor, D. J. (1986). The effect of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on gestation, parturition and prostaglandin E2 in intrauterine tissues and the kidney. Progress in Lipid Research 25, 143–146.Google Scholar
Lefkowith, J. B. & Schreiner, G. (1987). Essential fatty acid deficiency depletes rat glomeruli of resident macrophages and inhibits angiotensin II-induced eicosanoid synthesis. Journal of Clinical Investigation 80, 947–956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepran, I., Nemecz, G., Koltai, M. & Szekers, S. (1981). Effect of linoleic acid-rich diets on the acute phase of coronary occlusion in conscious rats: influence of indomethacin and aspirin. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 3, 847–853.Google Scholar
Lewis, G. P. (1983). Immunoregulatory activity of metabolities of arachidonic acid and their role in inflammation. British Medical Bulletin 39, 243–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, C. F., Carlson, S. E., Rhodes, P. G., Rao, V. S. & Meydrech, E. F. (1987). Increase in plasma phospholipid docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids as a reflection of their intake and mode of administration. Pediatric Research 22, 292–296.Google Scholar
McCarren, T., Hitzemann, R., Smith, R., Kloss, R., Allen, C. & Glueck, C. J. (1985). Amelioration of severe migraine by fish oil (omega-3) fatty acids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 41, 874.Google Scholar
MacDonald, M. L., Rogers, Q. R. & Morris, J. G. (1983). Role of linoleate as an essential fatty acid for the cat, independent of arachidonate synthesis. Journal of Nutrition 113, 1422–1433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, M. L., Rogers, Q. R., Morris, J. G. & Cupps, P. T. (1984). Effects of linoleate and arachidonate deficiencies on reproduction and spermatogenesis in the cat. Journal of Nutrition 114, 719–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacGregor, J. T., Wilson, R. E., Neff, W. E. & Frankel, E. N. (1985). Mutagenicity tests on lipid oxidation products in Salmonella typhimurium: monohydroperoxides and secondary oxidation products of methyl linoleate and methyl linolenate. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 23, 1041–1047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahley, R. W. (1982). Atherogenic hyperlipoproteinemia. The cellular and molecular biology of plasma lipoproteins altered by dietary fat and cholesterol. Medical Clinics of North America 66, 375–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manku, M. S., Horrobin, D. F., Morse, N., Kyte, V. & Jenkins, K. (1982). Reduced levels of prostaglandin precursors in the blood of atopic patients: defective delta-6-desaturase function as a biochemical basis for atopy. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Medicine 9, 615–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsden, J. R. (1987). Effect of dietary fish oil on hyperlipidaemia due to isoretinoin and etretinate. Human Toxicology 6, 219.Google Scholar
Mattson, F. H. & Grundy, S. M. (1985). Comparison of effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man. Journal of Lipid Research 26, 194–202.Google Scholar
Mattson, F. H., Hollenbach, E. J. & Kligman, A. M. (1975). Effect of hydrogenated fat on the plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels of man. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 28, 726–731.Google Scholar
Mertin, J. & Stackpoole, A. (1981). Anti-PGE antibodies inhibit in vivo development of cell-mediated immunity. Nature 294, 456–458.Google Scholar
Miller, D. G., Williams, S. K., Palombo, J. D., Griffin, R. E., Bistrian, B. R. & Blackburn, G. L. (1987). Cutaneous application of safflower oil in preventing essential fatty acid deficiency in patients on home parenteral nutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, 419–423.Google Scholar
Moncada, S. & Vane, J. R. (1979). Arachidonic acid metabolites and the interactions between platelets and blood vessel walls. New England Journal of Medicine 300, 1142–1147.Google Scholar
Morson, L. A. & Clandinin, M. T. (1986). Diets varying in linoleic and linolenic acid content alter liver plasma membrane lipid composition and glucagon-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity. Journal of Nutrition 116, 2355–2362.Google Scholar
Mueller, R. W., Schiefer, H. B., Laxdal, V. A. & Ackman, R. G. (1982). Aortic changes in Cynomolgus monkeys fed high-fat diets (long-term study). Artery 11, 174–191.Google ScholarPubMed
Mullane, K. M., Read, N., Salmon, J. A. & Moncada, S. (1984). Role of leukocytes in acute myocardial infarction in anaesthetized dogs: relationship to myocardial salvage by anti-inflammatory drugs. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 228, 510–522.Google Scholar
Myant, N. B. (1981). The Biology of Cholesterol and Related Steroids. London: W. Heinemann Medical Books.Google Scholar
Nestel, P. J. (1986). Fish oil attenuates the cholesterol-induced rise in lipoprotein cholesterol. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 43, 752–757.Google Scholar
Neuringer, M. & Connor, W. E. (1987). The importance of dietary n-3 fatty acids in the development of the retina and nervous system. In Proceedings of the AOCS Short Course on Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, pp. 301–311 [Lands, W. E. M., editor]. Champaign, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Norris, P. G., Jones, C. J. H. & Weston, M. J. (1986). Effect of dietary supplementation with fish oil on systolic blood pressure in essential hypertension. British Medical Journal ii, 104–105.Google Scholar
Nugteren, D. H. & Kivits, G. A. A. (1987). Conversion of linoleic and arachidonic acid by skin epidermal lipoxygenases. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 921, 135–141.Google Scholar
Nugteren, D. H. & Christ-Hazelhof, C. (1987). Naturally occurring conjugated octadecatrienoic acids are strong inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis. Prostaglandins 33, 403–417.Google Scholar
O'Dea, K. & Sinclair, A. J. (1982). Increased proportion of arachidonic acid in plasma liquids after two weeks on a diet of tropical seafood. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36, 868–872.Google Scholar
Olsen, S. F., Hansen, H. S., Jensen, B., Sommer, S., Soerensen, T. I. A., Secher, N. J. & Zachariassen, P. (1987). Duration of pregnancy and intake of marine fat in two populations, one with low and one with high consumption of marine fat. In Proceedings of the AOCS Short Course on Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids, pp. 268–269 [Lands, M., editor]. Champaign, Illinois: American Oil Chemists' Society.Google Scholar
Phillipson, $$$Rothrock, D. W., Connor, W. E., Harris, W. S. & Illingworth, D. R. (1985). Reduction of plasma $$$ poproteins, and apoproteins by dietary fish oils in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. New England Journal of Medicine 19, 1210–1216.Google Scholar
Poyser, N. L. (1981). Prostaglandins in Reproduction. Chichester: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Press, M., Kikuchi, H., Shimoyama, T. & Thompson, G. R. (1974). Diagnosis and treatment of essential fatty acid deficiency in man. British Medical Journal ii, 247–250.Google Scholar
Pudelkewicz, C., Seufert, J. & Holman, R. T. (1968). Requirements of the female rat for linoleic and linolenic acids. Journal of Nutrition 94, 138–146.Google Scholar
Putnam, J. C., Carlson, S. E., DeVoe, P. W. & Barness, L. A. (1982). The effects of variations in dietary fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine in human infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36, 106–114.Google Scholar
Reddy, B. S. & Tanaka, T. (1986). Interactions of selenium deficiency, vitamin E, polyunsaturated and saturated fat on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in male F344 rats. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 76, 1157–1162.Google ScholarPubMed
Ritter, J. M. & Taylor, G. W. (1988). Fish oil in asthma. Thorax 43, 81–83.Google Scholar
Rivers, J. P. W. & Frankel, T. L. (1981). Essential fatty acid deficiency. British Medical Bulletin 37, 59–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, D. R., Colvin, R. B., Hirai, A. & Steinberg, A. D. (1985). Dietary marine lipids modify autoimmune diseases. In Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods, pp. 247–259 [Simopoulos, A. P., Kifer, R. R. and Martin, R. E., editors]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Roshanai, F. & Sanders, T. A. B. (1984). Assessment of fatty acid intakes in vegans and omnivores. Human Nutrition: Applied Nutrition 38A, 345–354.Google Scholar
Sanders, T. A. B. (1983). Dietary fat and platelet function. Clinical Science 65, 343–350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanders, T. A. B. (1987). Fish and coronary artery disease. British Heart Journal 57, 214–219.Google Scholar
Sanders, T. A. B., Ellis, F. R. & Dickerson, J. W. T. (1978). Studies of vegans: the fatty acid composition of plasma choline phosphoglycerides, erythrocytes, adipose tissue, and breast-milk and some indicators of susceptibility to ischemic heart disease in vegans and omnivore controls. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 31, 805–813.Google Scholar
Sanders, T. A. B. & Naismith, D. J. (1979). A comparison of the influence of breast-feeding and bottle-feeding on the fatty acid composition of erythrocytes. British Journal of Nutrition 41, 619–623.Google Scholar
Sanders, T. A. B. & Roshanai, F. (1983). The influence of different types of ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood lipids and platelet function in healthy volunteers. Clinical Science 64, 91–99.Google Scholar
Sanders, T. A. B. & Younger, K. M. (1981). The effects of dietary supplements of ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of platelets and plasma choline phosphoglycerides. British Journal of Nutrition 45, 613–616.Google Scholar
Schiefer, H. B. (1982). Studies in non-hominid primates. In Nutritional Evaluation of Long-Chain Fatty Acids in Fish Oil, pp. 215–243 [Barlow, S. M. and Stansby, M. E., editors]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schiefer, H. B., Hancock, D. S. & Loew, F. M. (1982). Long-term effects of partially hydrogenated herring oil on rat myocardium. Drug–Nutrient Interactions 1, 89–102.Google Scholar
Seybeth, H. W., Oez, O., Kennedy, T., Sweetman, B. J., Danon, A., Frolich, J. C., Heimberg, M. & Oates, J. A. (1975). Increased arachidonate in lipids after administration to man: effects on prostaglandin biosynthesis. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 18, 521–529.Google Scholar
Shamberger, R. J., Andreone, T. L. & Willis, C. E. (1974). Antioxidants and cancer. IV. Initiating activity of malonaldehyde as a carcinogen. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 53, 1771–1773.Google ScholarPubMed
Sherertz, E. F. (1986). The skin in essential fatty acid deficiency. In Nutrition and the Skin, pp. 117–130 [Roe, D. A., editor]. New York: Alan R. Liss.Google Scholar
Sinclair, H. M. (1956). Deficiency of essential fatty acids and atherosclerosis, etcetera, Lancet i, 381–383.Google Scholar
Spector, A. A., Mathur, S. N., Kaduce, T. L. & Hyman, B. T. (1982). Lipid nutrition and metabolism of cultured mammalian cells. Progress in Lipid Research 19, 155–186.Google Scholar
Sullivan, D. R., Sanders, T. A. B., Trayner, I. M. & Thompson, G. R. (1986). Paradoxical elevation of LDL apoprotein B levels in hypertriglyceridaemic patients and normal subjects ingesting fish oil. Atherosclerosis 61, 129–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svaar, H. (1982). The long-term heart lesion phenomenon in animals and humans. In Nutritional Evaluation of Long-Chain Fatty Acids in Fish Oil, pp. 163–184 [Barlow, S. M. and Stansby, M. E., editors]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Talesnik, J. (1986). Arachidonic acid induced coronary reactions and their inhibition by docosahexaenoic acid. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 64, 77–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ten Hoor, F., de Deckere, E. A. M., Haddeman, E., Hornstra, G. & Quadt, J. F. A. (1980). Dietary manipulation of prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis in heart, aorta and blood platelets of the rat. Advances in Prostaglandin and Thromboxane Research 8, 1771–1781.Google Scholar
Terano, T., Hirai, A., Hamazaki, T., Kobayashi, S., Fujita, T., Tamura, Y. & Kumagai, A. (1983). Effect of oral administration of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid on platelet function, blood viscosity and red cell deformability in healthy human subjects. Atherosclerosis 46, 321–331.Google Scholar
Thomas, L. H., Jones, P. R., Winter, J. A. & Smith, H. (1981). Hydrogenated oils and fats: presence of chemically modified fatty acids in human adipose tissue. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34, 877–886.Google Scholar
Thomas, L. H., Olpin, S. O., Scott, R. G. & Wilkins, M. P. (1987). Coronary heart disease and the composition of adipose tissue taken at biopsy. Human Nutrition: Food Science and Nutrition 41F, 167–172.Google Scholar
Thomson, M., Fulton, M., Elton, R. A., Brown, S., Wood, D. A. & Oliver, M. F. (1988). Alcohol consumption and nutrient intake in middle-aged Scottish men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47, 139.Google Scholar
Tinoco, J. (1982). Dietary requirements and functions of α-linolenic acid in animals. Progress in Lipid Research 21, 1–45.Google Scholar
Vergroesen, A. J. & Gottenbos, J. J. (1975). The role of fats in human nutrition. An introduction. In The Role of Fats in Human Nutrition, [Vergroesen, A. J., editor]. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Von Schacky, C. & Weber, P. C. (1985). Metabolism and effects on platelet function of the purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in humans. Journal of Clinical Investigation 76, 2446–2450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wertz, P. W., Swarzendruber, D. C., Abraham, W., Madison, K. C. & Dowing, D. T. (1987). Essential fatty acids and epidermal integrity. Archives of Dermatology 123, 1381–1384.Google Scholar
Wheeler, T. G., Benolken, R. M. & Anderson, R. E. (1975). Visual membranes: specificity of fatty acid precursors for the electrical response to illumination. Science 182, 1312–1314.Google Scholar
Wong, S. & Nestel, P. J. (1987). Eicosapentaenoic acid inhibits the secretion of triacylglycerol and of apoprotein B and the binding of LDL in Hep G2 cells. Atherosclerosis 64, 139–146.Google Scholar
Wood, D. A., Butler, S., MacIntyre, C., Riemersma, R. A., Thomson, M., Elton, R. A. & Oliver, M. F. (1987). Linoleic and eicosapentaenoic acids in adipose tissue and platelets and risk of coronary heart disease. Lancet i, 117–183.Google Scholar
Wright, S. & Burton, J. L. (1982). Oral evening primrose oil improves atopic eczema. Lancet ii, 1120–1122.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, N., Saitoh, M., Moriuchi, A., Nomura, M. & Okuyama, H. (1987). Effect of dietary α-linolenate linoleate balance on brain lipid compositions and learning ability of rats. Journal of Lipid Research 28, 144–151.Google Scholar
Yamanaka, W. K., Clemans, G. W. & Hutchinson, M. L. (1980). Essential fatty acids deficiency in humans. Progress in Lipid Research 19, 187–215.Google Scholar
Young, M. R., Ellis, N. K., Young, M. E. & Wepsic, H. T. (1987). Stimulation of hematopoiesis and bone marrow suppressor cells by the subcutaneous injection of linoleic acid. Cellular Immunology 107, 238–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zevenbergen, J. L. (1987). Biological effects of trans fatty acids. In Fat Production and Consumption. Technologies and Nutritional Implications, pp. 157–167 [Galli, C. and Fedeli, E., editors]. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar