^{page 115 note 1} Yet the parish church is not a product of post-Reformation times, but is as marked a feature of mediæval architecture as the cathedral. One of the most striking things in many of the smaller European cathedral cities is the number of small churches, though the cathedral would seem large enough for all ordinary occasions. Canterbury contains nine small churches in addition to the cathedral, not including modern buildings or remains of monastic establishments. The city of Troyes in France has seven churches dating from the XVI c. and earlier, beside the cathedral.

^{page 117 note 1} A full discussion of this matter is contained in Perrot, 's History of Art in Ancient Egypt, i., 126Google Scholar, et seq.; i., 318, et seq. Also Perrot, 's History of Art in Chaldœa and Assyria, i., 364, et seq.Google Scholar

^{page 120 note 1} Several of the Roman basilicas, and one or two other churches built under the especial patronage of the emperors, were very large and splendid buildings, notably S. Peter's, S. Paul's, and S. John Lateran, dating from the IV c., which, notwithstanding many changes and alterations, we know to have been originally buildings of great size and magnificence. A recent restoration of the ancient basilica of S. Peter's, by MrBrewer, H. W. (The Builder, 01 2, 1892)Google Scholar, retaining in the XV c. the chief characteristics given it by Constantine, shows an elaborate group of buildings which, while without the grace and beauty of the Roman temple, and differing from it wholly in style, might, in magnitude, compare very well with some of the great pagan edifices. But this was an exceptional structure, and the probable average type of early Christian church may better be looked for in the stone churches of Syria, dating from the IV to the VII c., or in the churches of Ravenna, than in the buildings of Rome itself. See De Vogüé: Syrie centrale arch, civile et relig. du premier au septième siècle de notre ère, 2 vols.

^{page 121 note 1} The subdivision of sexes and persons was carried out to a considerable extent in the early basilicas. The women were on the right or epistle side, the men on the left; catechumens of both sexes were assigned places behind the full communicants. The penitents were confined to a space near the door. When there were galleries, which were not common in the West, widows were given one side and young women vowed to a religious life the other. The atrium was open to pagan and Christian alike. In the Coptic churches of Egypt the division of sexes was across the church instead of longitudinal, the men being near the altar, the women near the door, the division being made by a screen. See Butler, : Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, Oxford, 1884.Google Scholar

^{page 123 note 1} The oblong form is not the only one adopted for churches in the West. S. Pietro-e-Marcellino at Rome, attributed to Constantine, and S. George at Salonica, supposed to date from the same time, are simple rotundas. S. Costanza at Rome (iv c.), is a rotunda surrounded by a circular passage. Baptisteries were frequently of circular form, as at Ravenna and Milan. Cf. Planat: Encyclopédie de l'architecture et de la construction, art. Arch, relig. De Fleury, : Le Messe, tom, iii., 167–169Google Scholar, gives a list of plans of primitive churches with diagrams.

^{page 124 note 1} There is no more popular delusion in architecture than that the cross of Christ was deliberately selected as the plan of the church building. A study of the conditions under which the churches were erected shows how totally without foundation such an opinion is. Not only were round and oblong churches built in the West from the earliest times, but a comparison of a series of church plans, and a study of the development of ritual demonstrates that the latter was the chief cause in finally determining the cruciform plan. Even more preposterous is the idea that a deviation of the choir towards one side, noticeable in some churches, symbolizes the inclination of the body of Christ hanging on the cross. The building of churches extended over considerable periods of time in the middle ages, and it needs no symbolic explanation for slight irregularities in structures built at different epochs. Doubtless it is possible to design a church in which various doctrines and traditions shall be symbolized or represented in the architecture, but the work of the middle ages is too spontaneous, too extended, and too easily accounted for by common-sense means to render such reasons necessary. Dehio, & Bezold, : Die Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes, Stuttgart, 1884–1888Google Scholar. Three parts published, give a very complete series of plans and sections of churches from the earliest times.

^{page 125 note 1} MrScott, G. G. in An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture, pp. 14–23Google Scholar, contends that the position of the priest was facing the east, irrespective of the direction of the congregation. He gives a list of “about forty churches [in Rome] of early date, or giving evidence of the preservation of early arrangements, in which, contrary to the mediæval or modern rule, the sanctuary is placed at the western end of the buildings, as against seven of distinctly early date arranged upon the more modern plan” (p. 20). He sites the arcosolia of the Catacombs, which could only be used as altars by the priest standing with his back to the people, as further evidence. Fleury, Rohault de, Le Messe, tom. iii., 146Google Scholar, points out the influence of the eastern position in determining the orientation of the Christian church, but gives ample evidence (tom, i. 51Google Scholar, et seq.) of the early custom of standing behind the altar. While it is quite true the arcosolia necessitated the priest's standing in front of them, three other kinds of altars, the portable, the isolated, and placed against the wall, have been found in the Catacombs, leaving any argument drawn from the arcosolia alone of doubtful value. Cf. De Fleury: Le Messe, tom. i., 103.Google Scholar

^{page 126 note 1} In Canterbury cathedral, a church with two pairs of transepts, the choir is of vast extent, extending from the apse to the westernmost transepts. The altar is placed well forward, with considerable space behind it, formerly filled with the episcopal throne and the shrine of S. Thomas á Becket. The cathedral of Reims has likewise an immense choir which extends beyond the transepts into the nave. As at Canterbury, there is a large open space behind the altar. It is interesting to note this common characteristic in the metropolitan churches of England and France.

^{page 127 note 1} On this point consult Quicherat, De l'Architecture romane, in Mélanges d'archéologie et d'historie, Paris, 1886Google Scholar, for architectural evidence.

^{page 128 note 1} Cf. Prof. Frothingham's interesting and valuable series of papers on the Introduction of Gothic Architecture into Italy by the French Cistercian Monks, now publishing in the American Journal of Archaeology.

^{page 128 note 2} Dugdale, : Monasticon Anglicanum, 8 vols.Google Scholar; Courajod, : Le monasticon Gallicanum, Paris, 1869.Google Scholar

^{page 129 note 1} As to Chartres see Bulteau, : Monographic de la cathédrals de Chartres, 2d ed., Chartres, 1887–1891, tom. i., 118 et seq.Google Scholar

^{page 129 note 2} Norton, : Historical Studies of Church-Building in the Middle Ages, New York.Google Scholar

^{page 129 note 3} Gothic architecture is now admitted to be of religious origin, as opposed to lay influences. It is, of course, impossible to speak of the invention of Gothic architecture: it was not an invention, but was a growth, an evolution, a union of varied characteristics, which are first found in common in a religious structure, the abbey church of Morienval. See Gonse, : L'Art GothiqueGoogle Scholar, Paris. His chapter on the Origin of the Pointed Style is most admirable. For the influence of the lay workers, see p. 142. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française, art. Architecture attributes the beginnings of Gothic to the lay element.

^{page 131 note 1} This refers more especially to France, where the cathedral was frequently at the actual centre of the city, or upon the highest point. In England the cathedral is more generally on the outskirts of the city, apart from the noise and bustle of daily life. The French cathedrals were people's churches; the English were, many of them, monastic churches, and thus quite outside ordinary daily existence.

^{page 131 note 2} These figures include only the main piers springing from the floor and standing free, without walls behind them. Bourges cathedral (Barreau, : Description de la cathédrale, Chateauroux, 1885Google Scholar) contains 2,662 columns, columnettes, and clustered columns. Upwards of 4,350 human figures are employed in its ornamentation, of which 1,700 are statues or statuettes, and 2,950 painted on glass.

^{page 134 note 1} Cf. SirScott, G. G.: Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediteval Architecture, London, 1879, ii., p. 63Google Scholar.; Moore, : Development and Character of Gothic Architecture, London, 1890, p. 69.Google Scholar

^{page 135 note 1} The finest painted glass in Europe may be briefly summarized thus: Chartres cathedral contains nearly all the original glass in its 175 windows. Most of it dates from the XIIIc.; two windows are from the XII c., eight from the xiv, one from the xv, two from the xvi. Le Mans, choir, aisle, and clearstory, XIII c., contains in one of the apsidal chapels the most ancient known example, dating from the XI c. The rose windows of the transepts of Amiens are very fine. Angers has some magnificent XII c. windows in the nave, and XIII in the choir. The glass of the choir of Tours, XIII c., is complete and of marvellous beauty. Bourges contains much magnificent XIII c., glass in the eastern part of the church, and also some fine examples of the xiv, xv, and xvi c. Limoges has some good glass of the xiv and xvi c. Troyes has some XIII, XV, and XVI c. Reims also has some superb windows, and the Ste Chappelle, partly xIII and XV c., at Paris, is extremely well known. The French cathedrals contain much more and much finer painted glass than the English. The beauty of the XIII c. glass is its intense rich coloring, not the drawing of the design, though this is of marvellous complexity and ingenuity. The intensity of color, especially when the glass is seen at its best, with the sun shining directly through it, has never been reproduced. Several of the French cathedrals contain modern imitations of the ancient windows that are melancholy examples of modern workmanship. Reproductions of painted glass may be found in Cahier et Martin: Monographie de la cathédrale de Bourges, Paris, 1841–1844Google Scholar; Hucher, : Vitraux peints de la cathédrale du Mans, Le Mans, 1864Google Scholar; Lasteyrie, : Hist, de la peinture sur verre d'après ses monuments en France, Paris, 1853–1857Google Scholar; Schaefer, and Rosstenscher, : Ornamentale Glasmalereien des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, Berlin, 1888.Google Scholar