Early studies of European integration presumed either the erosion and gradual disappearance of the nation-state (neofunctionalism) or its persistence and continued capacity to shape the integration process (intergovernmentalism). In both cases, the focus was on the supranational (European) level. For neofunctionalists, institutions and processes at the European level would eventually supplant those at the national level in importance, while for intergovernmentalists, the supranational level was the arena of bargaining and deal making between relatively coherent and self-interested states. The directional flow of activity and influence was from the national to the supranational, with national bureaucratic and nongovernmental actors shifting their interests and loyalties to the European level, or domestic actors seeking to shape national bargaining goals and strategies in the European arena.