The Norwegian polar heroes Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen, and to a lesser extent Otto Sverdrup, have been profiled and their deeds described in countless publications. They were, however, not the only Norwegians to travel on and use the polar seas. A significant section of the Norwegian population used to make its living in Arctic and/or Antarctic waters, and such activities led both to new discoveries of land and knowledge of natural conditions, and to an extra occupation as support for polar scientists and explorers. Some of these lesser-known individuals and their deeds are described here in an attempt to put the expeditions of the great heroes into a broader context and to give more substance to some names that may perhaps have been noted only ‘in passing.’

George William Manby (1766–1854) was an English inventor best known for his idea of firing a line from shore to a wrecked ship so that the crew might be saved by means of a breeches-buoy. Around 1819 he turned his attention to new typesof whaling harpoons, bothahand harpoon andagun harpoon. In 1821 he went on a voyage to the Greenland whaling grounds on board Baffin, Captain William Scoresby Jr, with the aim of trying out his inventions, but the experiments were foiled by the reluctance of the crew to cooperate. As a result of that voyage, Manby espoused three ideas that he pursued obsessively for the rest of his life: that there might still be Norse survivors in the so-called ‘Lost Colony’ in East Greenland; that Britain should claim the area of East Greenland north of the area claimed by Denmark; and that this area should be developed as a penal colony.

Greenstockings was the name that the members of Sir John Franklin's first Arctic Land Expedition gave to a young Dene woman during their winter residence at Fort Enterprise in 1820–21. All the officers' journals remark on her physical beauty, a reputed beauty that subsequently put her at the centre of numerous rumours and accounts. Historians know little about her other than her physical attractiveness and her age, although Greenstockings might have borne a child to one of Franklin's officers, and male jealousy over her might have put the expedition at serious risk. In spite of the paucity of factual information, Greenstockings has been cast as a central character in a poem by Franklin's first wife and in an award-winning book by Canadian novelist Rudy Wiebe. These and other pieces of information show the way that different perspectives can allow for different representations of historical figures.

Despite much scientific research, a considerable amount of uncertainty exists concerning the rate and extent of climate change in the Arctic, and how change will affect regional climatic processes and northern ecosystems. Can an expanded scope of knowledge and inquiry augment understandings of climate change in the north? The extensive use of the land and the coastal ocean in Inuit communities provides a unique source of local environmental expertise that is guided by generations of experience. Environmental change associated with variations in weather and climate has not gone unnoticed by communities that are experiencing change firsthand. Little research has been done to explore the contributions of traditional knowledge to climate-change research. Based in part on a collaborative research project in Sachs Harbour, western Canadian Arctic, this paper discusses five areas in which traditional knowledge may complement scientific approaches to understanding climate change in the Canadian Arctic. These are the use of traditional knowledge as local-scale expertise; as a source of climate history and baseline data; in formulating research questions and hypotheses; as insight into impacts and adaptation in Arctic communities; and for long-term, communitybased monitoring. These five areas of potential convergence provide a conceptual framework for bridging the gap between traditional knowledge and western science, in the context of climate-change research.

This paper identifies and discusses terminology used in discussion of disturbance, damage, and rehabilitation in frozen soils and related ecosystems, and provides a vocabulary that may help scientists from different disciplines to identify management objectives and reach common purposes.

The Antarctic environment is well known for its hostility (cold, isolation, and confinement). The effects of the Antarctic experience on human health are controversial, as some studies emphasise negative (‘pathogenic’) and others positive (‘salutogenic’) effects. In the process of human adaptation to extreme environments, the cognitive and behavioural strategies — defined as coping — that individuals use are a basic component.

This study investigated the use and the changes of coping strategies in nine Antarctic wintering-over expeditioners by administering the COPE questionnaire three times during the year. The results showed a composite use of the coping strategies in the group. The ways of coping, focusing on problem solving and developing personal maturity, were judged to be those most used over the period. Some variations connected with the specific environment were noticed. There was an increase in self-distancing from problems, disengaging from the socio-operational environment, procrastinating, and emotional levelling, particularly in mid-winter. This lethargic, apathetic attitude, which is called ‘freezing,’ may represent a defence against useless energy expenditure and may reduce stress response. This ‘immobilisation’ strategy, well reflected in the symptoms of the ‘winter-over syndrome,’ appears to be adaptive in an environment where the control an individual can exert is highly limited. The results seem to support the salutogenic effects of the winter-over experience.

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty requires that past and present work sites be cleaned up unless removal would result in greater adverse environmental impact than leaving the contaminant in its existing location. In the early 1990s Australia began the documentation of contaminated sites associated with its research stations, which resulted in an extensive record of contamination at abandoned stations and waste-disposal sites. Currently the technical capability to remediate these sites does not exist because of environmental challenges that are unique to the cold regions. Investigations indicate that clean-up operations in the past have proceeded without adequate precautions and without effective monitoring. To address these problems, three research priorities have been identified to assist meeting international and national obligations to clean up these sites. They are: understanding contaminant mobilisation processes; development of ecological risk assessment for use in monitoring and setting priorities; and development of clean-up and remediation procedures. This study provides sufficient information to guide the completion of a clean-up at Casey Station and to indicate how other similar sites should be managed. The next stage is to develop the theory into an operational plan to include detailed protocols for clean-up, monitoring, site remediation, and management of the waste stream from site to final repository. To achieve this, the Australian Antarctic Division has established a contaminated sites taskforce to facilitate the transition from research and development of techniques to implementation of suitable clean-up options.

United States policy toward the Antarctic in the 1950s culminated in the treaty that bears the continent's name — the same treaty that continues to govern relations in the far south. Washington succeeded in promoting the admirable objectives of scientific advancement and international cooperation. In doing so, it also forfeited what many officials believed to be the more important objective of formalizing a national sovereignty claim to halt further erosion of the rights associated with its mammoth expeditions. Trapped by having repeated their non-claimancy, nonrecognition policy, which Secretary of State Charles E. Hughes had announced in 1924, US officials scrambled for alternatives. They finally chose to formalize their policy-making paralysis, rather than a claim, by proposing a treaty that called for a political status quo moratorium, in accord with the Chilean Escudero Plan. That decision impressed some experts as unwise, but it was sufficiently expedient to win the signatures needed for ratification.

This paper examines the location, intensity, and frequency of zodiac landings by passengers on tourist ships in the Antarctic Peninsula region during 10 seasons, 1989/90 through 1998/99. In this period, the number of passengers increased 307%, from 2460 to 10,013. Zodiac landings have occurred at 165 Peninsula region sites, concentrating in the South Shetland Islands and the northwestern part of the Peninsula. From 1989/90 to 1998/99, the number of zodiac landings in the Peninsula region increased 423%, from 164 to 858. The most visited sites are identified, as are sites experiencing increases in the second half of this 10-year period. The 10 and 20 sites experiencing the most zodiac landings each season consistently account for approximately 55% and 75% of that season's landings, respectively. Based on 1998/99 data, sites with high or medium species diversity or with high or moderate sensitivity to potential environmental disturbance account for a significant percentage of landings. Recommendations are presented for improving the assessment of potential environmental impacts at zodiac landing sites, and for improved methods of reporting site visits by the tour operators involved.

At the end of the twentieth century, Russia's Northern Sea Route (NSR) has functioned primarily as a domestic marine transport system with Murmansk Shipping Company as the dominant operator and facilitator. Total cargo along the NSR in 1999 was 1.58 million tons; during 1997–99 no through transit cargo was carried on the NSR. The International NSR Programme (INSROP), backed by Japanese, Norwegian, and Russian interests, concluded in November 1999 with a key user conference in Oslo. The six-year (1993–99) INSROP effort produced a large body of new information about the NSR and Russian Arctic that decision-makers will find valuable in planning future ventures in the region. Concerns have been expressed in Russia for the ageing icebreaker fleet that has been the backbone of all NSR operations since the 1950s. Several nuclear icebreakers have been refuelled and, although detailed plans for a replacement fleet of nuclear and diesel-electric ships have been developed, financing has not been identified. As Arctic sea ice continues to decline in extent and thickness, the impacts on future NSR operations will be significant considerations for future operations.

Early explorers in the Canadian high Arctic described a fringe of thick, landfast ice along the 500-km northern coast of Ellesmere Island. This article shows from analyses of historical records, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery (ERS-1, SPOT, RADARSAT-1) that this ancient ice feature (‘Ellesmere Ice Shelf’) underwent a 90% reduction in area during the course of the twentieth century. In addition, hydrographic profiles in Disraeli Fiord (83°N, 74°W) suggest that the ice-shelf remnant that presently dams the fiord (Ward Hunt Ice Shelf) decreased in thickness by 13 m (27%) from 1967 to 1999. Mean annual air temperatures at nearby Alert station showed a significant warming trend during the last two decades of this period, and a significant decline in the number of freezing degree days per annum. The ice-dammed fiord provides a stratified physical and biological environment (epishelf lake) of a type that is otherwise restricted to Antarctica. Extensive meltwater lakes occur on the surface of the ice shelf and support a unique microbial food web. The major contraction of these ice–water habitats foreshadows a much broader loss of marine cryo-ecosystems that will accompany future wanning in the high Arctic.

Buried pits (sumps), used for the disposal of drilling muds in the Mackenzie Delta area of Arctic Canada, provide an opportunity for assessing the effectiveness of ice-bonded permafrost sediments as a containment for industrial wastes. Potassium chloride (KCI) added to drilling muds as a freezing-point depressant provides a suitable tracer, because it is easily identified and natural concentrations in sediment pore water are typically low (less than 0.02 g l−1; potassium). Muds with KCI concentrations of up to 10% by weight (100 g l−1) have been used. In the vicinity of sumps, potassium is found at elevated concentrations of up to several g l−1 in the seasonal thaw layer (active layer) at distances well beyond what would be expected from diffusive transport alone. Within the level alluvial silts of the modern Mackenzie Delta, KCI has moved up to 50 m laterally from sump edges. On surrounding tundra uplands, KCI has migrated several hundred metres downslope within the active layer.

Although ice-rich permafrost sediments appear to form an effective barrier against downward movement of solutes, thawing ice lenses and veins within the active layer greatly increase the lateral hydraulic conductivity in this zone during the thaw season. Compared with unfrozen silty sediments, the large pores left by thawed ice fabric in the same sediment after a freeze–thaw cycle have been shown to increase the hydraulic conductivity up to four orders of magnitude. This phenomenon is probably common in thawing, ice-rich sediments and presumably favours accelerated downhill movement of solutes. On level ground, it is anticipated that KCI movement is promoted by fluid densities approaching that of sea water. Laboratory experiments with thawed sand and both unfrozen and thawing Mackenzie Delta silt confirm the existence of density-driven solute movement and the importance of thawing ice fabric in promoting solute movement. The thawed ice fabric of active-layer sediments and the presence of a frost table promote lateral movement of fluids when a density or elevation gradient is present. These tendencies widen the area potentially affected by contaminant migration from abandoned waste sites and they may also promote the movement of contaminants that escape from future containments.

In Article 3 of the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties committed themselves to ‘the protection of the Antarctic environment…and the intrinsic value of Antarctica, including its wilderness and aesthetic values.’ The phraseology of the Protocol requires clarification. ‘Wilderness and aesthetic values’ links two disparate concepts, best handled by separation. Annex V, Article 3, of the Protocol covers many topics, and their assessment must be by a composite of frameworks specifically designed for the different purposes set out in the Annex.

A working definition of wilderness in the Antarctic is suggested: ‘Any part of the Antarctic in which neither permanent habitation nor any other permanent evidence of present or past human presence is visible.’ Using this, a very high proportion of the continent will be recognised as having wilderness status. The phrase ‘aesthetic values’ should be seen as part of a wider process—Landscape Character Assessment—that is at present unknown to most in the Antarctic community. It is based on the principle of objective description and classification of landscape character. This basic characterisation can then be put to different uses, one of which may be to make more subjective judgements or evaluations that lead to area designations.

Although Jane Franklin has acquired a well-deserved reputation for stoicism and perseverance in the search for her missing husband (a central theme of nineteenth-century polar exploration), there remains evidence that she was prepared to resort to the surprising measure of the use of spirit mediums. The suggestion that she, or any Arctic explorers on the spot, had heeded such methods, led to a bitter public debate in the 1890s, involving survivors of the search for Franklin. Not only is it a particularly strange and absorbing story, but there also emerges evidence that Lady Franklin's papers may have been deliberately censored in order to preserve her credibility.

The Inuvialuit Region of the Canadian western Arctic continues to support a variety of land-based activities as part of the regional mixed economy. Tourism development, one of the newer elements of the mixed economy, has potential to conflict with beluga whale hunting, one of the traditional activities. The paper asks the question: can local employment be created through nature-based tourism development in Inuvik, Aklavik, and Tuktoyaktuk in the Inuvialuit Region in ways that support the local mixed economy and minimize conflict with the traditional sector? Results of interviews with Inuvialuit elders and tour operators indicate that both parties regard tourism as a desirable employment option and a creator of economic benefits, with relatively few economic drawbacks and relatively little environmental concern. The problem, however, is that tourism also brings with it social impacts and cultural drawbacks that are, in the Inuvialuit view, mostly related to (a) intrusiveness of tourists, especially in relation to the beluga hunt; (b) representation of the aboriginal hunt in a negative light; and (c) commodification of culture. On the balance, nature-based tourism development has the capability to support the local mixed economy, subject to resolving the conflict between beluga whaling activities and tourists. Fundamentally, however, the conflict is between Inuvialuit lifestyles and values versus the values and expectations of tourists.

The physical behaviour of oil interacting with soils subjected to seasonal frost or permafrost was investigated. An experimental programme was carried out to investigate the transportation and spreading of oil on a frozen surface, and transportation and accumulation of oil into freezing or frozen soils. The results show that spreading of oil at the surface at air temperatures below freezing depends on oil composition, soil temperature, and the type of mineral surface. It was observed that an ice surface has the least spreading and the greatest wetting angle of the surfaces studied. The oil penetration into frozen soils depends on soil and oil composition and temperature conditions. It was observed, as expected, that oil accumulation in frozen soils decreases with increasing ice content in the pores. However, penetration of oil components is observed even in completely ice-saturated soils. Freezing of oil-saturated soils causes a redistribution of the oil components. In sandy soils, the oil concentrates in a thawed zone in front of the freezing front; in clay soils, the oil can accumulate in the frozen zone under certain temperature conditions. A summary of the influence of various factors affecting oil behaviour in frozen and freezing soils is presented based on the experimental data and published data from other authors.

New biographical information is given about L.R. Blake, surveyor and geologist at Macquarie Island during the 1911–14 Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Blake's survey of the island yielded maps that in significant respects are more accurate than the current topographic map of 1971, which, with one exception, adopted his height measurements for the 23 named peaks. The more recent height estimates for these peaks are assessed, and it is concluded that, while some of Blake's measurements were significantly in error, his values still stand as the best current estimates for one-third of the peaks. Blake's death five weeks before the end of the First World War consigned his achievements on Macquarie Island to obscurity.