Hostname: page-component-68945f75b7-6sdl9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-09-04T12:35:32.927Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Current Crises and Potential Conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Challenges Facing Global Health or Global Public Health by a Different Name

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2019

Frederick M. Burkle Jr*
Affiliation:
Professor (Ret.); Senior Fellow & Scientist, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Harvard University and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Cambridge, Massachusetts USA Senior International Public Policy Scholar, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC USA Elected Member, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC USA
*
Correspondence: Frederick M. Burkle, Jr Harvard University - Harvard Humanitarian Initiative 14 Story street 2nd Floor Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 USA E-mail: skipmd77@aol.com

Abstract

Since 1945, the reasons for major crises and how the world responds to them have changed every 10-15 years or sooner. Whereas these crises vary greatly across global regions, their economic, environmental, ecological, social, and disease aspects are increasingly under the influence of widely integrated global changes and forces arising primarily from: climate extremes; rapid unsustainable urbanization; critical biodiversity losses; and emergencies of scarcity in water, food, and energy. These slow-moving but increasingly severe crises affect larger populations across many borders and lead to the emergence of increasing population-based, preventable public health emergencies related to water, sanitation, food, shelter, energy, and related health illnesses, and ultimately global health security. This report explores the impact of these crises on Asia and the Pacific region, and their potential for regional conflict.

Type
Special Report
Copyright
© World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

The World Bank. Results profile: China poverty reduction. March 19, 2010. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/03/19/results-profile-china-poverty-reduction. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Carey, M. Ecological problems in China. The UNEDITED. October 7, 2000. http://www.theunedited.com/econauts/18.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Xinhua. 2016-08-20. Editor Huaxia. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-08/20/c_135618492.htm. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Wike, R, Stokes, B. Chinese Public Sees More Powerful Role in World, Names US as Top Threat. Pew Research Center. October 5, 2016. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/10/05/chinese-public-sees-more-powerful-role-in-world-names-u-s-as-top-threat/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Asia Development Bank. Health Issues in Asia and the Pacific. https://www.adb.org/sectors/health/issues. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Uretsky, E, Bouey, J, Katz, R. China’s emerging role in global health. Health Affairs Blog. January 17, 2013. https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20180109.759800/full/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Koplan, JP, Bond, TC, Merson, MH, et al. Consortium of Universities for Global Health Executive Board. Towards a common definition of global health. Lancet. 2009;373(9679):19931995.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battams, S, Matlin, S. Discussing a definition of global health: policy brief. Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies; Geneva, Switzerland. December 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259196481_Discussing_a_definition_of_global_health_Policy_Brief. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, JM, Bound, J, Geronimus, AT. US infant mortality and the President’s party. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(3):818826.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Homan, P. Political gender inequality and infant mortality in the United States, 1990-2012. Soc Sci Med. 2017;182:127135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kawachi, I, Kennedy, BP, Gupta, V, Prothrow-Stith, D. Women’s status and the health of women and men: a view from the States. Soc Sci Med. 1999;48(1):2132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkle, FM Jr, Greenough, PG. Impact of public health emergencies on modern disaster taxonomy, planning, and response. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2008;2(3):192199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osler, W. Aequanimitas. Unity, Peace, and Concord. 3rd Edition. New York USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.; 1906:429430.Google Scholar
Toole, MJ. Mass population displacement. A global public health challenge. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1995;9(2):353366.Google ScholarPubMed
Public Health and War. History of Medicine Collections. US National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, Maryland USA. August 18, 2014. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/digicolls/phfgtw/essay.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Ghobarah, HA, Huth, P, Russett, B. The post-war public health effects of civil conflict. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59(4):869884.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foggia, M. Reconstruction Successes and Failures. October 18, 2012. https://prezi.com/5kh3qsju4kwm/reconstruction-successes-and-failures/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Robles, F, Davis, K, Fink, S, Almukhtar, S. Official Toll in Puerto Rico: 64. Actual deaths May be 1,052. December 9, 2017. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/08/us/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-death-toll.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Burkle, FM Jr. Zika: Defining the public health and exposing its deficiencies. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297698775_ZikaDefining_the_public_health_and_exposings_its_deficienecies. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I). Enacted 1977-06-08, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/05/5-01/protection-of-victims.xml. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Burkle, F Jr, Garfield, R. Civilian mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Lancet. 2013;381(9870):877879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lacina, B, Gleditsch, NP. Monitoring trends in global conflict: a new dataset of battle deaths. European Journal of Population. 2005;21(2-3):145166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OCHA. World Humanitarian Data and trends 2016. Policy Analysis and Innovation Section, Policy Development and Studies Branch. https://data.humdata.org/dataset/world-humanitarian-data-and-trends. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Scholz, N. The public health dimension of the European migrant crisis. Members Research Service. PE573.908. European Parliamentary Research Service. Briefing. January 2016. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/573908/EPRS_BRI(2016)573908_EN.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Bradby, H, Humphris, R, Newall, D, Phillimore, J. Public health aspects of migrant health: a review of the evidence on health status for refugees and asylum seekers in the European Region. Health Evidence Network Synthesis Report 44. WHO, National Office for Europe. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/289246/WHO-HEN-Report-A5-2-Refugees_FINAL.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
WHO. Health of Migrants. Report by the Secretariat. Executive Board, 122nd Session provisional agenda item 4.8. EB122/11. December 20, 2007. http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/health_of_migrants/B122_11-en.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Burkle, FM, Martone, G, Greenough, PG. The changing face of humanitarian crises. Brown Journal of World Affairs. Spring/Summer 2014;XX(11):2542.Google Scholar
Gursky, EA, Burkle, FM Jr, Hamon, DW, Walker, P, Benjamin, GC. The changing face of crises and aid in the Asia-Pacific. Biosecur Bioterror. 2014;12(6):310317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veenema, TG, Thornton, CP, Lavin, RP, et al. Climate change-related water disasters’ impact on population health. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2017;49(6):625634.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The Economics of Climate Change in the Asia-Pacific Region. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) 2016. www.unescap.org/resources/economics-climate-change-asia-pacific-region. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
The Global Risks Report 2016, 11th Edition. World Economic Forum. Geneva, Switzerland. http://wef.ch/risks2016. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Burkle, FM Jr. The limits to our capacity: reflections on resiliency, community engagement, and recovery in 21st-century crises. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2011;5(Suppl 2):S176181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkle, FM Jr. Do pandemic preparedness planning systems ignore critical community- and local-level operational challenges? Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2010;4(1):2429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evolving Risk Concerns in Asia-Pacific: Building resilience in an Increasingly Uncertain Global Risk Environment. Asia Pacific Risk Center, Marsh & McLennan Companies, Inc. 2016. www.mmc.com/asia-pacific-risk-center.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Pratt, N. UN issues disaster risk warning for Asia-Pacific. Commercial Risk: Insurance & Risk Management News. October 11, 2017. http://www.commercialriskonline.com/un-issues-disaster-risk-warning-asia-pacific/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
The Global Risks Report 2018. 13th Edition World Economic Forum. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GRR18_Report.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Ingram, JC, Dawson, TP. Climate change impacts and vegetation response on the island of Madagascar. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2005;363(1826):5559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreppel, KS, Caminade, C, Telfer, S, et al. A non-stationary relationship between global climate phenomena and human plague incidence in Madagascar. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8(10):e3155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott Adams’ Blog. Adams Law of slow-moving disasters-update. Posted January 22, 2015. http://blog.dilbert.com/2015/01/22/adams-law-of-slow-moving-disasters-update/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Rodgers, P. Development of resilient Australia: enhancing the PPRR approach with anticipation, assessment and registration of risks. Aus J Emerg Manag. 2011;17(2):1013.Google Scholar
Stokes, B, Wike, R, Carle, J. Concern about climate change and its consequences. Pew Research Center. November 5, 2015. http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/11/05/1-concern-about-climate-change-and-its-consequences/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
23rd Smaller Island States Leaders. Opening Statement by Secretary General Tuiloma Neroni Slade. 23rd Smaller Island States Leaders Meeting, Palau Community College Koro, Republic of Palau; July 28, 2014. http://www.forumsec.org/pages.cfm/newsroom/speeches/2014-3/opening-statement-at-23rd-smaller-island-states-leaders-meeting-by-secretary-general-tuiloma-neroni-slade.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Weixiao, H, Chen, L, Baofa, J, et al. Major natural disasters in China, 1985-2014: occurrence and damages. J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13(11):1118.Google Scholar
Science News. Unabated climate change would reverse the development gains in Asia, report suggests. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. Science Daily. July 14, 2017. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/07/170714140300.htm. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank. Unabated Climate Change Would Reverse the Hard-Earned Development Gains in Asia. New Report News Release. Manila, Philippines; July 14, 2017.Google Scholar
Asian Development Bank. A Region at Risk: The Human Dimensions of Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific. July 2017. https://www.adb.org/publications/region-at-risk-climate-change. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Monguzzi, A. Disasters preparedness saves lives and saves money. IFRC Europe Zone Office. April 9, 2013. http://www.ifrc.org/fr/nouvelles/nouvelles/common/disasters-preparedness-saves-lives-and-saves-money-61204/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
UNICEF. Preparedness for Emergency Response in UNICEF. Guidance Note EMOPS. UNICEF: New York; December 2016. https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/files/UNICEF_Preparedness_Guidance_Note_29_Dec__2016_.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Wallace, T. Oceans are absorbing almost all of the globe’s excess energy. September 12, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/09/12/science/earth/ocean-warming-climate-change.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Laffoley, D, Baxter, JM, (eds). Explaining Ocean Warming: causes, scale, effects and consequences. Full report. Gland, Switzerland: ICUN. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Global Marine and Polar Program. September 2016. http://www.epoca-project.eu/~gattuso/files/Magnan_Gattuso_2016.pdf. Accessed July 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, A. El Nino parches Asia Pacific, destroying crops and drying up water sources. Environment. Thomson Reuters Foundation, January 26, 2016. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asiapac-elnino-drought/el-nio-parches-asia-pacific-destroying-crops-and-drying-up-water-sources-idUSKCN0V41KE. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Wong, E. Drought in Northern China is worst on record, officials say. Asia Pacific. 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/29/world/asia/china-drought.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
UNESCAP. UN initiative strengthens drought monitoring and early warning in Asia Pacific. Eco-Business. July 1, 2014. http://www.eco-business.com/news/un-initiative-strengthens-drought-monitoring-and-early-warning-asia-pacific/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
El Nino, Poor water management, and climate change bringing droughts to Asia and the Pacific. June 14, 2016. Asian Development Bank News and Events. https://www.adb.org/news/features/el-nino-poor-water-management-and-climate-change-bringing-droughts-asia-and-pacific. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Burkle, FM Jr. The Politics of Global Public Health in Fragile States and Ungoverned Territories. PLoS Curr. 2017;9.Google Scholar
Greenwood, S. Water insecurity, climate change, and governance in the Arab world. Middle East Policy. 2014;11:140156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Femia, F, Werrell, C. Syria: climate change, drought and social unrest. The Center for Climate and Security. https://climateandsecurity.org/2012/02/29/syria-climate-change-drought-and-social-unrest/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2015. UNHCR, The UN Refugee Agency; Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.unhcr.org/statistics. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Brzoska, M, Scheffran, J. Climate and war: no clear-cut schism. Nature. 2013;498(7453):171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solow, AR. Global warming: a call for peace on climate and conflict. Nature. 2013;497(7448):179180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schleussner, CF, Donges, JF, Donner, RV, Schellnhuber, HJ. Armed-conflict risks enhanced by climate-related disasters in ethnically fractionalized countries. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2016;113(33):92169221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowles, DC, Butler, CD, Morisetti, N. Climate change, conflict and health. J R Soc Med. 2015;108(10):390395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burrows, K, Kinney, PL. Exploring the climate change, migration and conflict nexus. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13(4);443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canyon, DV, Speare, R, Burkle, FM. Forecasted impact of climate change on infectious disease and health security in Hawaii by 2050. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2016;10(6):797804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Canyon, DV, Burkle, FM, Speare, R. Managing community resilience to climate extremes, rapid unsustainable urbanization, emergencies of scarcity, and biodiversity crises by use of a disaster risk reduction bank. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2015;9(6):619624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkle, FM Jr. Pandering to ignorance on climate change: lessons from an investment strategist. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2013;28(3):200201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burkle, FM Jr. Future humanitarian crises: challenges for practice, policy, and public health. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2010;25(3):191199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, SA. War, climate change, and migration. Explore. 2018;14(3):172176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taniaalim. Mumbai: Slums and Sanitation. October 23, 2017. https://citynessblog.wordpress.com/2017/10/23/mumbai-slums-and-sanitation/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Kwiringira, J, Atekyereza, P, Niwagaba, C, Günther, I. Gender variations in access, choice to use and cleaning of shared latrines; experiences from Kampala Slums, Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The Statistics Portal. Degree of urbanization by continent in 2017. https://www.statista.com/statistics/270860/urbanization-by-continent/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Turcanin. Marshall Islands: Where America shot Mother Earth down. https://turcanin.wordpress.com/2012/05/25/marshall-islands-where-america-shot-mother-earth-down/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Kiribati Development Plan 2016-19 Government of Kiribati. http://www.mfed.gov.ki/sites/default/files/Kiribati%20Development%20Plan%202016%20-%2019.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Yakupitiyage, T. Urbanization May Be “Biggest Challenge” for Asia-Pacific. Inter Press Service News Agency. October 19, 2015. http://www.ipsnews.net/2015/10/urbanisation-may-be-biggest-challenge-for-asia-pacific-new-report-says/. Accessed July 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ESCAP-UN Factsheet. Urbanization Trends in Asia and the Pacific. November 2013. http://www.unescap.org/resources/urbanization-trends-asia-and-pacific. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Fenson, A. Asia’s Urbanization “just beginning.” The Diplomat: Know the Asia-Pacific. January 30, 2015. https://thediplomat.com/2015/01/asias-urbanization-just-beginning/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
ESCAP. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Media Advisory; October 13, 2015: Bangkok. http://www.unescap.org/news/sixth-asia-pacific-urban-forum. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
ESCAP. UN Habitat. The State of Asian Cities 2010/11. August 9, 2010. https://issuu.com/unhabitat/docs/the_state_of_asian_cities. Accessed July 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CUHK Business School: China’s Pearl River Delta Development: A game Changer for Hong Kong. April 12, 2017. http://www.bschool.cuhk.edu.hk/faculty/cbk/article.aspx?id=34404834. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
The World Bank. Guangdong Pearl River Delta Urban Environment Project. TWB: Projects & Operations. 2018. The World Bank Group. http://projects.worldbank.org/P075728/guangdong-pearl-river-delta-urban-environment-project?lang=en&tab=details. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
SmartCities Council. Getting urbanization right: New World Bank report on East Asia points the way. February 4, 2015. https://smartcitiescouncil.com/article/getting-urbanization-right-new-world-bank-report-east-asia-points-way. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Safe Cities Index 2017. Security in a rapidly urbanizing world. Economist Intelligence Unit. The Economist. http://safecities.economist.com/safe-cities-index-2017. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Yakupitiyage, T. Urbanization May Be “Biggest Challenge” for Asia-Pacific, New Report Says. Inter Press Service. March 11, 2018. http://www.ipsnews.net/2015/10/urbanisation-may-be-biggest-challenge-for-asia-pacific-new-report-says/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Human Security Report Project and World Bank. Mini-Atlas of Human Security. New York USA: Simon Fraser University; 2008.Google Scholar
Urdal, H. A clash or generations? Youth bulges and political violence. September 11, 2006; 50(3):607-629. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2006.00416.x/abstract. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Thayer Bradley, A. Considering population and war: a critical and neglected aspect of conflict studies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2009;364(1532):30813092.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Population Institute. Overpopulation may lead to conflict. July 12, 2007. https://www.populationinstitute.org/newsroom/press/view/20/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
The State of Conflict and Violence in Asia. The Asia Foundation. San Francisco, California USA. 2017. https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/The_State_of_Conflict_and_Violence_in_Asia-12.29.17.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Manipadma, J. The Urbanization of Malnutrition. Inter Press Service. March 4, 2018. http://www.ipsnews.net/2017/09/the-urbanization-of-malnutrition/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
The World Bank. World Bank Report Provides New Data to Help Ensure Urban Growth Benefits the Poor. January 26, 2015. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/01/26/world-bank-report-provides-new-data-to-help-ensure-urban-growth-benefits-the-poor. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
United Nations. Global Land Outlook Report. Convention to Combat Desertification. Secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1,53113. Bonn, Germany. 2017. http://archive.unccd.int/download/GLO_Full_Report_hi_res.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Ravallion, M, Chen, S. China’s (uneven) progress against poverty. Journal of Development Economics. 2007;82:142. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PGLP/Resources/ShaohuaPaper.pdf. Accessed July 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, M. Future war in cities: urbanization’s challenge to strategic studies in the 21st century. International Review of the Red Cross. 2016;98(1):3751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, KM, Gulledge, J, McNeill, JR, et al. The Age of Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security Implications of Global Climate Change. Center for Strategic and International Studies, Center for a New American Security. November 2007. https://www.scribd.com/document/224353750/Climate-Change. Accessed July 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groesbeck, J. Conflict and urbanization. April 25, 2013. https://prezi.com/ntoudo9iokyn/conflict-and-urbanization/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Reid, A. War, human rights and biodiversity: turning conflict into conservation. Ecologist. March 23, 2017. https://theecologist.org/2017/mar/23/war-human-rights-and-biodiversity-turning-conflict-conservation. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Machlis, GE, Hanson, T. Ecology, Warfare. BioScience. 2008;58(8):729736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asner, G. Military bases and submarines: what it’s like to dive in the South China Sea. March 29, 2017. https://www.cnn.com/2017/03/29/opinions/south-china-sea-coral-reef-destruction/index.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
McDonald, AM, Bonsor, HC, Ahmed, KM, et al. Groundwater quality and depletion in the Indo-Gangetic Basin mapped from in situ observations. Nature Geoscience. 2016;9:762766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, A. Loss of biodiversity and extinctions. Global Issues. January 19, 2014. http://www.globalissues.org/article/171/loss-of-biodiversity-and-extinctions. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
ReliefWeb. A Region at Risk: The human dimensions of climate change in Asia and the Pacific. Report from Asian Development Bank. July 14, 2017. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/region-risk-human-dimensions-climate-change-asia-and-pacific. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Clark, NE, Boakes, EH, McGowan, PJK, Mace, GM, Fuller, RA. Protected areas in South Asia have not prevented habitat loss: a study using historical models of land-use change. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(5):e65298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mora, C, Sale, PF. Ongoing global biodiversity loss and the need to move beyond protected areas: a review of the technical and practical shortcomings of protected areas on land and sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 2011;434:251266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiens, JJ. Climate-related local extinctions are already widespread among plant and animal species. PLOS Biology. 2016;14(12):e2001104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guam Daily Post. Report: Pacific Islanders face risk of relocation by end of century. PacNews. July 18, 2017. https://www.postguam.com/news/pacific/report-pacific-islanders-face-risk-of-relocation-by-end-of/article_50d22a64-6aaa-11e7-b897-37b317a99d72.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Living Planet Report 2014. World Wildlife Fund: N.W. Washington, DC USA. https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/living-planet-report-2014. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Chan, KM, Pringle, RM, Ranganathan, J, et al. When agendas collide: human welfare and biological conservation. Conserv Biol. 2007;21(1):5968.Google ScholarPubMed
Redpath, SM, Young, J, Evely, A, et al. Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends Ecol Evol. 2013;28(2):100109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, T, Brooks, TM, Da Fonseca, GA, et al. Warfare in biodiversity hotspots. Conserv Biol. 2009;23(3):578587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNeely, JA, Kapoor-Vijay, P, Zhi, L, et al. Conservation biology in Asia: the major policy challenges. Conserv Biol. 2009;23(4):805810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudgeon, D, Arthington, AH, Gessner, MO, et al. Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2006;81(2):163182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMichael, AJ. Environmental and social influences on emerging infectious diseases: past, present and future. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2004;359(1447):10491058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patz, JA, Olson, SH, Uejio, CK, Gibbs, HK. Disease emergence from global climate and land use change. Med Clin North Am. 2008;92(6):14731491, xii.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smallman-Raynor, MR, Cliff, AD. Impact of infectious diseases on war. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18(2):341368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teicher, CL, Ronat, JB, Fakhri, RM, et al. Antimicrobial drug-resistant bacteria isolated from Syrian war-injured patients, August 2011-March 2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20(11):19491951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, YT, Hsueh, PR. Antimicrobial drug resistance in Taiwan. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2008;32(Suppl 3):S174178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Syrians Contend with New Threat: The Rise of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections. Newsweek. September 14, 2016. http://www.newsweek.com/syrians-contend-new-threat-rise-antibiotic-resistant-infections-497713. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Larson, C. Growing shortages of water threaten china’s development. July 16, 2010. Yale Environment360. https://e360.yale.edu/features/growing_shortages_of_water_threaten_chinas_development. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
ESCAP. The status of the water-food-energy nexus in Asia and the Pacific. August 1, 2013. http://www.unescap.org/resources/status-water-food-energy-nexus-asia-and-pacific. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Müller, O, Krawinkel, M. Malnutrition and health in developing countries. CMAJ. 2005;173(3):279286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lam, VWY, Cheung, WWL, Reygondeau, G, Sumaila, UR. Projected change in global fisheries revenues under climate change. Scientific Reports. 2016;6:32607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weatherdon, LV, Ota, Y, Jones, MC, Close, DA, Cheung, WW. Projected scenarios for coastal first nations’ fisheries catch potential under climate change: management challenges and opportunities. PLoS One. 2016;11(1).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Water Pollution in China: Facts and Details. 2010. http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub66/item391.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Jacobs, A. In China, pollution worsens despite new efforts. July 28, 2010. Asia Pacific. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/world/asia/29china.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Piao, S, Ciais, P, Huang, Y, et al. The impacts of climate change on water resources and agriculture in China. Nature. 2010;467(7311):4351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amundson, R, Berhe, AA, Hopmans, JW, Olson, C, Sztein, AE, Sparks, DL. Soil science. Soil and human security in the 21st century. Science. 2015;348(6235):1261071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tong, S, Berry, HL, Ebi, K, et al. Climate change, food, water and population health in China. Bull World Health Organ. 2016;94(10):759765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mekonnen, MM, Hoekstra, AY. Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Sci Adv. 2016;2(2):e1500323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fant, C, Schlosser, CA, Gao, X, et al. Projections of water stress based on an ensemble of socioeconomic growth and climate change scenarios: a case study in Asia. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3):e0150633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruber, B. By 2050 Asia at high risk of severe water shortages: MIT study. Environment. April 14, 2016. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asia-water-crisis-tracked/by-2050-asia-at-high-risk-of-severe-water-shortages-mit-study-idUSKCN0XB207). Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Hoekstra, AY, Mekonnen, MM, Chapagain, AK, Mathews, RE, Richter, BD. Global monthly water scarcity: blue water footprints versus blue water availability. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(2):e32688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, A. Managing Scarcity: The Institutional Dimensions. Global Dashboard. Global Policy Forum. August 25, 2009. https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/dark-side-of-natural-resources/other-articles-analysis-and-general-debate/48191.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
China Water Risk: Analysis & Reviews China’s Soil. February 14, 2018. http://chinawaterrisk.org/resources/analysis-reviews/5-trends-for-2018-the-year-of-the-dog/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Mukherjee, A, Sengupta, MK, Hossain, MA, et al. Arsenic contamination in groundwater: a global perspective with emphasis on the Asian scenario. J Health Popul Nutr. 2006;24(2):142163.Google ScholarPubMed
Bagchi, S. Arsenic threat reaching global dimensions. CMAJ. 2007;177(11):13441345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cui, Z, Zhang, H, Chen, X, et al. Pursuing sustainable productivity with millions of smallholder farmers. Nature. 2018;55:363366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carbon Disclosure Project. A Turning Tide. https://www.cdp.net/en/research/global-reports/global-water-report-2017. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Andrews-Speed, P, Bleischwitz, R, Boersma, T, et al. The Global Resource Nexus. The Struggles for Land, Energy, Food, Water, and Minerals. Washington, DC USA: Transatlantic Academy; 2012.Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. International Decade for Action: Water for Life: 2005-2015. http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/index.shtml. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Busby, J. Water and US National Security. January 2017. Council on Foreign Relations, Center for Preventive Action and Program on Energy Security and Climate Change. Maurice R. Greenberg Center for Geo-economic Studies.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, A. Resource scarcity, climate change and the risk of violent conflict. World Development Report. 2011; Background Paper: September 9, 2010.Google Scholar
Maiese, M.Causes of Disputes and Conflicts.” In: Burgess, G, Burgess, H, (eds). Beyond Intractability. Boulder, Colorado USA: Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder; October 2003. http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/underlying-causes. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Davey, T. Developing countries can’t afford climate change. August 5, 2016. Future of Life Institute. https://futureoflife.org/2016/08/05/developing-countries-cant-afford-climate-change/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Australia and FAO partner to improve agricultural water management and food security in Asia. May 12, 2017. http://www.fao.org/emergencies/fao-in-action/stories/stories-detail/en/c/1071606/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Water Pollution in China: Facts and Details. 2014. http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub66/item391.html. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Ahmad, I, Zhang, F, Liu, J, et al. A linear bi-level multi-objective program for optimal allocation of water resources. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(2):e0192294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breu, T, Bader, C, Messerli, P, Heinimann, A, Rist, S, Eckert, S. Large-scale land acquisition and its effects on the water balance in investor and host countries. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(3): e0150901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United Nations Environment Program (UNDP). Livelihood Security: Climate change, Migration and Conflict in the Sahel. https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Sahel_EN.pdf. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Ruttinger, L. Climate Diplomacy. Climate-fragility risks in Japan and the Asia-Pacific region. Workshop Documentation. June 14-16, 2016. Tokyo, Japan. https://www.google.com/search?q=japan+and+climaste+change+security+and+conflict%26ie=utf-8%26oe=utf-8&client=Dfirefox-b-1. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Fisher, M. How China stays stable despite 500 protests every day. The Atlantic. January 5, 2012. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/01/how-china-stays-stable-despite-500-protests-every-day/250940/. Accessed April 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Hernandez, JC. Labor protest multiply in China as economy slows, worrying leaders. Asia Pacific. New York Times. March 14, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/15/world/asia/china-labor-strike-protest.html. Accessed April 1, 2018.Google Scholar
Kickbusch, I. Global Health Governance Challenges 2016 - Are We Ready? Int J Health Policy Manag. 2016;5(6):349353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaglehole, R, Bonita, R. What is global health? Global Health Action. 2010;3:10.Google ScholarPubMed
World Economic Forum. What just happened? The biggest stories from Davos 2018. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/01/davos-2018-biggest-stories/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Li, A, Kasai, T. The Asia Pacific Strategy for Emerging Diseases - a strategy for regional health security. Western Pac Surveill Response J. 2011;2(1):69.Google Scholar
Patz, JA, Grabow, ML, Limaye, VS. When it rains, it pours: future climate extremes and health. Ann Glob Health. 2014;80(4):332344.Google ScholarPubMed
Li, J, Lin, X, Chen, A, et al. Global priority conservation areas in the face of 21st century climate change. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e54839.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The World Bank. World Bank Report provides new data to help ensure urban growth benefits the poor. January 26, 2015. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/01/26/world-bank-report-provides-new-data-to-help-ensure-urban-growth-benefits-the-poor. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Reaves, EJ, Termini, M, Burkle, FM. Reshaping US Navy Pacific response in mitigating disaster risk in South Pacific Island nations: adopting community-based disaster cycle management. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2014;29(1):6068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirby, A. Climate refugees may reach many millions by 2050. Climate News Network. March 20, 2018. https://climatenewsnetwork.net/climate-refugees-may-reach-many-millions-by-2050/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Van Noorden, R. Interdisciplinary research by the numbers. Nature. 2015;525;3017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, R. World View: Finding the true value of US climate science. Nature. February 9, 2012. https://www.nature.com/news/finding-the-true-value-of-us-climate-science-1.9993?nc=1419509956881. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Nisbet, M. Will the health dangers of climate change get people to care? The science says: maybe. IFLScience. April 7, 2016. https://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/will-health-dangers-climate-change-get-people-care-science-says-maybe/. Accessed July 2019.Google Scholar
Weathers, MR, Kendall, BE. Developments in the framing of climate change as a public health issue in US newspapers. Environmental Communication. 2015;10(5):593611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weathers, M, Maibach, EW, Nisbet, MC.Climate Change and Health.” In: Thompson, T, (ed). Sage Encyclopedia of Health Communication. Newbury Park, California USA: Sage Publications; 2014.Google Scholar