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American Judicial Internationalism in the Twentieth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2017

Michael Dunne
Michael Dunne*
Affiliation:
Sussex University
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Abstract

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Type
Lawyers as Statesmen: Twentieth-Century U.S. Attitudes Toward International Law
Information
Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting , Volume 90 , 1996 , pp. 148 - 155
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 2015

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References

The author wishes to acknowledge the financial help received from the British Academy and the Research Fund of the School of English & American Studies of the University of Sussex in the preparation of this paper.

1 Elihu Root, The Need of Popular Understanding of International Law, 1 AJIL 1 (1907).

2 175 U.S. 677, 700 (1900).

3 1 AJIL 1, 130–33, 273–86, 418–30 (January-April, 1907).

4 Archibald Cary Coolidge, The United States as a World Power (1909). For a recent study, with a wide-ranging bibliography, see Joseph Smith, The Spanish-American War: Conflict in the Carribbean and the Pacific, 1895–1902 (1994).

5 William Appleman Williams, The Legend of Isolationism in the 1920s, 18 Science and Soc'y 1, 1–20 (1954).

6 John Bassett Moore, The Collected Papers of John Bassett Moore, esp. vol. IV (Borchard et al., eds.,1944); Edwin M. Borchard & William Potter Lage, Neutrality for the United States (2d ed., 1940).

7 Classically and bitterly expressed in Seug Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: its Twentieth Century Reaction (1957).

8 Robert A. Divine, Second Chance: the Triumph of Internationalism in America during World WarII (1967), esp. Chaps. 11 & 12.

9 Eric A. Nordlinger, Isolationism Reconfigured: American Foreign Policy for a New Century (1995);Sidney Blumenthal, The Return of the Repressed: Anti-Internationalism and the American Right, 12 World Pol'yJ. 1, 1–13 (1995).

10 Calvin DeArmond Davis, The United States and the Second Hague Peace Conference: American Diplomacy and International Organization 1899–1914, 301 (1975).

11 For an introduction to the history and bibliography see the complementary study, Calvin DeArmond Davis, The United States and the First Hague Peace Conference (1962).

12 Manley O. Hudson, The Permanent Court of International Justice, 1920–1942: a Treatise 149 (1943). Hudson, one of the most active lobbyists for U.S. membership of the PCIJ, later became a judge of the Court.

13 See Michael Dunne, The United States and the World Court, 1920–1935 (1988). The bibliographical material may be updated by B.A. Boczek, Historical Dictionary of International Tribunals, International Organizations Series, No. 5 (1994). This paper was written before I was aware of the recent magnum opus by Michla Pomerance: The United States and the World Court as a ‘Supreme Court of the Nations': Dreams, Illusions and Disillusion (1996). A comparable study of the PCIJ and the ICJ to the one presented here is Thomas M. Franck, Judging the World Court. A Twentieth Century Fund Paper (1986).

14 Dunne, supra note 12, esp. Chap. 5. For the acronym, see Louis Henkin, U.S. Ratification of Human RightsConventions: The Ghost of Senator Bricker, 89 AJIL 340–50 (1995).

15 Convenient accounts can be found in the rival and contemporaneous studies by Royden J. Dangerfield, In Defense of the Senate: A Study in Treaty Making (1933); and W. Stull Holt, Treaties Defeated by the Senate: A Study of the Struggle between President and Senate over the Conduct of Foreign Relations (1933).

16 Ruth B. Russell & Jeannette E. Mother, A History of the United Nations Charter: the Role of the United States, 1940–1945, 939 (1958).

17 U.S. Dep't of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. I, pp. 59–60 (emphasis added).

18 Dunne, supra note 12, Chap. 4, which draws upon, inter alia, P. J. Baker, The Obligatory Jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of lnternational Justice, 1925 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 68–102; William Hepburn, The Optional Clause, 19 Georgetown L.I. 66, 66–98 (1930); Gabriele Salvioli, La Jurisprudence de la Cow Permanentede Justice Internationale, 12 Recueildes Cours II, 1–114 (1926); J. H. W. Verzijl, Die Rechtsprechung desStändigen Internationalen Gerichtshofes, 1922 bis Mai 1926, 13 Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht, no. 4, 489–543(1926); and lohn Fischer Williams, The League of Nations and Unanimity (with special reference to the Assembly), 19 AJIL 475–88 (1925).

19 For the standard account see, Duane A. Tananbaum, The Bricker Amendment Controversy: A Test of Eisenhower's Political Leadership (1988).

20 1959 I.C.J. Reports, pp. 6 ff. at 95–122; Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International Law by the Permanent Court of International Justice. Publications of the Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, no. 11, 74–5, 89, 93, 106–7 (1934).

21 Rudolf B. Schlesinger, The Connally Amendment—Amelioration by Interpretation? 48 Virginia L. Rev. 685–97, esp. p. 693n. (1962).

22 A. E. Dick Howard, The Connolly Amendment, 2 J. John Bassett Moore Soc'y of Int'l L. 1–18 (Spring1961).

23 Denison Kitchel, Too Grave a Risk: The Connally Amendment Issue (1963).

24 Compulsory Jurisdiction, International Court of Justice: Hearings onS. Res. 94, Before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 86th Cong. 2nd Sess., January 27 and February 17,1960; Strengthening the InternationalCourt of Justice: Hearings on S. Res. 74, S. Res. 75, S. Res. 76, S. Res. 77, and S. Res. 78, Before the SenateCommittee on Foreign Relations, 93rd Cong. 1st Sess. May 10 and 11,1973. A major advocate on both occasions was Stephen M. Schwebel, the ICJ's current Vice-President; and the “boomerang“ effect of the Connally Amendment was a common theme of many participants.

25 See, e.g., The Future of the International Court, 2 vols. (Leo Gross ed., 1976); cf. idem, Underutilization of the International Court of Justice, 27 Harv. Int'l L. J. 571–97 (1986); The International Court of Justiceat a Crossroads (Lori Fisler Damrosch ed., 1987); Margaret A. Rague, The Reservation Power and the Connolly Amendment, 11 N.Y.U.J. Int'l L. & Polit., 323–58 (1978). For the struggle continued, see e.g., Richard Falk, Reviving the World Court (1986).

26 Douglas J. Ende, Reaccepting the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice: A Proposal for a New United States Declaration, 61 Washington L. Rev. 1145–83 (1986); Karin Oellers-Frahm, Die ‘obliga-torische’ Gerichtsbarkeit des Internationalen Gerichtshofs: Anmerkungen anläßlich der Zuständigkeitsentschei-dung im Fall Nicaragua gegen USA, 47 Zeitschrift fur auslÄndisches Öffentliches Recht und VÖlkerrecht 242–64 (1987).

27 David P. Forsythe, Human Rights and Peace: International and National Dimensions (1993); cf. Friedbert Pflüger, Human Rights Unbound: Carter's Human Rights Policy Reassessed, 19 Pres. Stud. Q. 705–16 (1989), which is more comprehensive than the title suggests.

28 Louis Henkin et al., Might v. Right: International Law and the Use of Force (1989), esp. David J.Scheffer, Introduction: the Great Debate of the 1980s, 1–17; Robert F. Turner, International Law, The Reagan Doctrine, and World Peace: Going Back to the Future, 11 Washington Q. 119–36 (1988); Francis Anthony Boyle, World Politics and International Law (1985).

29 Natalie Hevener Kaufman, Human Rights Treaties and the Senate: A History of Opposition (1990);U.S. Ratification of the International Covenants on Human Rights (Hurst Hannum & Dana D. Fischereds., 1993). The United States is not alone, of course, in its qualifications: see Liesbeth Lunzaad, Reservations to UN-Human Rights Treaties. Ratify or Ruin?, International Studies in Human Rights, No. 38 (1995).

30 Henkin, supra note 13.

31 See, e.g., David P. Forsythe, The United States, the United Nations, and Human Rights, in The United States and Multilateral Institutions: Patterns of Changing Instrumentality and Influence, vol. 5,261–88 (Margaret P. Karns & Karen A. Mingst eds., 1990).

32 For representative and divergent views, see The United Nations and a Just World Order (Falk et al.eds., 1991); Jochen Hippler, Pax Americana? Hegemony or Decline (1994), esp. Chap. 9; Gene M. Lyons,A New Collective Security: The United Nations and International Peace, 17 Washington Q. 173–99 (1994); Rosemary Righter, Utopia Lost: The United Nations and World Order (1995); United Nations, Divided World: the UN's Roles in International Relations (Adam Roberts & Benedict Kingsbury, eds., 2d ed.,1993); United Nations Legal Order, 2 vols. (Oscar Schachter & Christopher C. Joyner eds., 1995); Thomas G. Weiss et al., The United Nations and Changing World Politics (1994).

33 1 have elaborated this argument in Dunne, Hemisphere and Globe: The Terms of American Foreign Relations, 70 Int'l Aff. 701–20, esp. 716 (1994).

34 Charles William Maynes, A Workable Cinton Doctrine, Foreign Pol'y 3–20, No. 93 (1993–1994); Thomas Carothers, Democracy Promotion under Clinton, 18 Wash. Q. (1995).

35 Stanley R. Sloan, The U.S. Role in a New World Order: Prospects for George Bush's Global Vision, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (1991); Christopher Sloan: Bipartisan Foreign Policy will Be Sustained (Statement to Senate Foreign Relations Committee, February 14, 1995): USIS European Wireless File, February 15, 1995; Clinton Proposes New Agenda for the 21st Century (October 22, 1995): USIS OfficialText, October 24, 1995.

36 Knud Krakau, Nationalism in International Law and Practice, in Reflections on American Exception-alism. European Papers in American History, No. 1, 226–55 (David K. Adams & Cornells A. van Minnen eds., 1994); Peter R. Baehr, The Role of Human Rights in Foreign Policy 81 (1994).

37 International Courts for the Twenty-First Century (Mark W. Janised., 1992). Studies from within and concerning the ICJ include Taslim O. Elias, The International Court of Justice and Some Contemporary Problems: Essays on International Law (1983); Fifty Years of the International Court of Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Robert Jennings (Vaughan Lowe & Malgosia Fitzmaurice, eds., 1996); Stephen M. Schwebel, Justice in International Law: Selected Writings of Judge Stephen M. Schwebel (1994); Nagendra Singh, The Role and Record of the International Court of Justice (1989).

38 Shabtai Rosenne, The Position of the International Court of Justice on the Foundations of the Principle of Equity in International Law, in Forty Years of the International Court of Justice: Jurisdiction, Equity and Equality 86–108, esp. p. 90 (A. Bloed & P. van Dijk, eds., 1988).