Excluding brewing and distilling, the food and beverages sector of the Scottish economy is estimated to employ about one in six of the manufacturing workforce and has a gross added value of just over £1000m per annum. These industries also have a strong link with suppliers of machinery and packaging equipment within the local economy, and of course with Scottish agriculture which provides an important part of the raw material used. On the conservative assumption that Scotland is responsible for about 10% of the U.K. exports of unprocessed and processed foods, which total just short of £3000m per annum and that exports depend on high quality standards in choice of raw material for processing, Scotland should be uniquely placed to contribute to the government-backed 'Food from Britain' campaign which is now getting under way.

Marine resources, including seaweeds, have always played an important role in the history of the Orkney Islands, particularly over the period of the ‘kelp’ industry between 1719 and the 1930s. Recent studies confirm the presence of major sub-tidal seaweed forests dominated by the brown seaweed Laminaria hyperborea.

In this paper, consideration is given to the possible revitalisation of the seaweed industry in Orkney, involving major developments of both harvesting and processing technology. This is seen as a logical component of an integrated inshore marine resource management strategy for the Islands.

Mass blooms of purple sulphur bacteria belonging to the genera Thiocapsa and Chromatium (> 108 viable cells/g dry wt sediment) develop in localised areas at the sand/air interface on a number of sheltered beaches in Scapa Flow each summer. These anaerobic bacteria grow phototrophically using H2S as e− donor and develop in association with other groups of phototrophic and heterotrophic bacteria. Oxygen consumption by the heterotrophs is greater than O2 production by the algae and diffusion from the surface and this rapidly leads to anaerobic conditions in the sub-surface sediments (0–10 mm depth). Under these conditions, significant populations of sulphate reducing bacteria develop (circa 105 viable cells/g dry wt sediment) and reduce SO2−/4 to S2− during the anaerobic oxidation of low molecular weight organic substrates. Sulphide generated in this process is used as the e− donor in photosynthesis by the purple sulphur bacteria and in turn is re-oxidised to SO2−/4. Sulphate reduction is dependent upon the availability of oxidisable low molecular organic substrates which are produced, as metabolic end-products, during the microbial decomposition of algal detritus. Blooms of Thiocapsa and Chromatium spp. were most pronounced on beaches such as Scapa, Waulkmill and Swanbister, which in localised areas, have high total organic carbon contents (5–12% w/w). The factors regulating the development of these localised mass developments of anaerobic phototrophic bacteria in apparently aerobic environments are discussed.

While food and drink expenditure per head in Scotland is much the same as in the rest of the U.K., primary food production is at a relatively higher level, food processing is slightly less important and alcoholic drink production very much higher. Food production in Scotland is almost 80% of food consumption but probably less than 40% of what we cat has remained within the country all the way from farm or sea to the Scottish consumer. Over half of Scottish consumers' food expenditure goes to processing and distribution and around a quarter to the farming and fishing industry; the balance is spent on imports. Farm output has roughly doubled over the past 30 years while farm prices (relative to other prices) have roughly halved. In recent years food manufacturing has regained the production levels of 1979 while other manufacturing has declined by over 10%. The alcoholic drink industry has suffered much more from the recession. The relatively stable domestic demand for food conceals changes in the pattern of that demand and the development of all sections of the Scottish food and drink economy depends on their adapting to these changes as well as exploiting opportunities to replace imports or develop export markets.

The range of foodstuffs that can be produced by Scottish agriculture depends chiefly on the nature of the soils and the prevailing climate. The landform of Scotland and some of its physical features are discussed in terms of its geology, and the nature of its present-day soils in relation to parent materials is summarized. The agriculturally useful soils have been mapped, inventoried and characterized by the Soil Survey of Scotland and other departments of the Macaulay Institute for Soil Research. The limitations imposed by the soils, their geographical latitude, altitude, aspect, slope, the prevailing weather in their locality, etc., are taken into account in the Land Capability for Agriculture (LCA) assessment. Examples are given of several physical and chemical characteristics which are dominant in Scottish soils and which are of particular significance to the production of foodstuffs.

The physical and biological characteristics of a variety of sandy shores in Orkney are described using transect data from 7 sites within Scapa Flow and 7 sites from the Mainland and North Isles. Shore profiles are described and discussed, shores ranging in length from 80 m to 1200 m. Median grain size of the sediments was generally between 180 and 300 μm (fine to medium grade sands) and the sediments were very clean. The fauna was dominated numerically by polychaetes and amphipods on all shores, Pygospio elegans, Capitella capitata and Bathyporeia spp. being the dominant forms; molluscs were notably insignificant on most shores. Tables giving the maximum densities of every species recorded together with the maximum densities of dominant species at each station on all shores are presentThe results are compared with a range of North European shores which comprise basically similar communities but with much higher population densities in Orkney. A site of unique interest at the Bay of Quoys, Hoy, is described and discussed.

The distribution and relative abundance of various types of coastline are reviewed briefly. The results of a 9 year investigation of selected rocky shore communities are presented. Climatic parameters showed a marked variation during the study but were not correlated with the observed variations in flora and fauna. The main study was based on annual sampling of 8 bedrock shore transects using percentage cover or density for sessile and mobile species respectively. Seasonal fluctuations were studied in fixed areas at 2 sites over a 5 year period. Patterns of seasonal variation in various algal and faunal categories are described and discussed, canopy algae showed summer maxima while understorey species showed winter maxima. Annual studies showed species stability to be site specific: in species which showed marked, apparently cyclic, patterns of change, the changes were often asynchronous both between sites and, to a lesser degree, between stations at a site. The value of obtaining a measure of ‘patchiness’ is discussed.

The pattern of the current Scottish sea fishery is described in terms of landings, value and species. The contribution from fresh water and from aquaculture is also outlined and the possibilities of distant water fisheries noted. The stability of the resource base is examined, and the effects of pollution assessed. For the future of fisheries, the importance of adequate management arrangements coupled with an understanding of how fishing pressure and fluctuations affect the stocks is emphasised.

The extent of resource use—land, capital, labour and management—in Scottish agriculture in the early 1980s is estimated, using available published data. The main developments that have occurred to create this resource base are outlined, with the likely changes that will influence its nature by the mid 1990s. Each of 3 agricultural sectors—dairying, arable and livestock—is considered in turn. The paper concludes by outlining broadly the nature of the base as it might appear by the mid 1990s from the effects of economic and market forces. The pressures on land and labour use, from limitations on production of milk and arable crops but expanded lowland stock enterprises, are highlighted. The serious consequences for agricultural land and labour use in the more remote disadvantaged areas of Scotland are recognised, as is the need to consider the social/amenity value of the retention of a sufficient agricultural base in these areas. Finally, some of the issues and questions associated with the maintenance of agriculture in the hills in the future are indicated.

Fishing has long played an important part in the economy of Orkney. Local vessels are all small, and fish predominantly inshore for shellfish. Demersal and pelagic fish are abundant in the offshore waters around Orkney, but these exposed waters can be fished only by large vessels from more distant ports, so that few fish are landed in the islands.

Gadoids, especially haddock, cod and whiting, form the bulk of the demersal fish caught at Orkney. Stocks of all three are giving cause for concern, with declining spawning stock biomass and reduced recruitment. With the coming of processing, more local landing of demersal fish might occur. The closure of the herring fishery in 1977 was followed by a great expansion of mackerel fishing, but with the lifting of the ban west of 4CW in 1981, herring catches have once again become valuable. Because of fishing pressure, landings of both species are subject to quota restrictions.

In recent years, the traditional fisheries for lobsters and crabs have been supplemented by a new fishery for scallops. Lobster stocks are now under some pressure. Conditions around Orkney appear suited to farming filter-feeding bivalve molluscs, and culture and marketing of Pacific oysters has started.

The size and distribution of Orkney's breeding seabird populations are relatively well known, with cliff-nesting species having been monitored annually since 1976. Conditions for these monitored species appear to be less favourable now than they were at the beginning of the study.

Nationally significant populations of seaducks and waders winter in Orkney. With exceptions, the population size, distribution and ecology of these birds is only poorly understood.

Otters appear to be widespread; however, spraint surveys suggest that these animals may not be as numerous in Orkney as they are in Shetland, the Western Isles and Highland Region.

In Scotland horticultural food crops occupy about 1·4% of the tillage land, and contribute about 4% of the total Scottish agricultural output. Climate, soil type and factors such as distance to markets and availability of labour have influenced the location of horticultural crops. This has changed with time, particularly because of the influence of the processing industry. Soft fruit production (3,630 hectares), with raspberries being the dominant crop, is concentrated in the Tayside region; more than 90% of the raspberry crop is processed by pulping (for jam, etc.), freezing or canning. Vegetable production (6,130 hectares) is somewhat more dispersed from the Border region to the Moray Firth; more than half the total area is occupied by peas for canning and freezing. Glasshouse production of tomatoes is now only 25 hectares located mainly in the Clyde Valley.

The future for Scottish horticultural food production will continue to be influenced by the requirements of the processing industry, but there is also an increasing outlet for fresh fruit and vegetables in supermarkets. Expansion of the production of horticultural food crops in Scotland depends on the ability of the industry to meet market demands in terms of quality and continuity of supply. Increasing reference to the need for an improved British diet may stimulate the consumption of fruit and vegetables on the home market and there continue to be opportunities for increasing the export of processed and fresh produce. Scotland has the land resources, crop production expertise and processing and marketing facilities to respond to these opportunities.

Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and common seals (Phoca vitulina) both occur in Orcadian waters. In previous centuries they formed an important resource for both domestic use and export.

Annual grey seal pup production has more than doubled since 1964. Productivity on individual islands is influenced by human activity. Total population size is estimated to have risen from around 10,000 in 1964 to around 20,000 in 1982 despite a management policy of culling originally intended to stop population growth. Grey seals tagged in Orkney have been recovered around most parts of the North Sea, Norway, the Faeroes and south to Ireland.

Considerably less is known about the biology of common seals in Orkney. A boat survey in 1979 counted 2653 adults and 420 pups.

The organisations concerned with agricultural and fisheries research and development in Scotland are outlined and the institutional and funding arrangements are explained. The role of DAFS is presented in an AFRS context and the operation of the customer/contractor principle discussed. The overall objective is to improve the efficiency of plant and animal production in northern Britain, taking account of social, environmental and welfare considerations. Flexibility to respond to changing requirements is an important factor. The remits of the institutes and colleges are set out and are appropriate to the major agricultural sectors. The integrative and collaborative strengths of the commissioned work are illustrated with selected examples of relevance to produce yield, food quality, shelf-life and human diet. Advice on research and development priorities and the allocation of budgets is provided by the new Priorities Board and there is close liaison between DAFS, MAFF and AFRC to ensure co-ordination of effort.

Reference is also made to the main elements of the fisheries research programme. Revised review procedures to monitor research progress and respond to changing industry needs are described. The paper concludes by examining the problems arising from reduced funding.

This paper briefly reviews the legal framework of pollution control in Orkney, and discusses the occurrence of the main categories of contaminants there.

There is no indication of elevated concentrations of organohalogen compounds in Orkney shellfish. The main potential source of hydrocarbon contamination is thoroughly monitored, and no major adverse effect has been noted.

High concentrations (up to 62 μg/g wet wt) of cadmium occur in edible crab hepatopancreas from Orkney, Shetland and surrounding areas. A consideration of cadmium concentrations in a range of species suggests a regional geochemical anomaly for cadmium, affecting biota perhaps through solid phases.

Only two Scottish universities are directly involved in education in the food area. At Strathclyde students can read for a BSc with honours in Food Science, and for an MSc in Food Science and Microbiology. At Heriot-Watt students can read for a BSc in Brewing, a BSc with honours in Brewing and Microbiology or Biochemistry, and for an MSc in Brewing. Food education in the universities is almost entirely dependent on UGC funding, and sponsorship is rare except for students from overseas. The food industry in Britain has a poor record for supporting university education. In recent years the centralisation of the activities of large manufacturing companies in the South has reduced career prospects for graduates in Scotland. Although few in number, the staff at Strathclyde and Heriot-Watt have earned a high reputation for their research, ranging from basic to applied studies. A significant proportion of doctoral students are from overseas countries, as are most MSc students. Funding for research has always been difficult, except for support from the brewing and distilling industries. However, moves to reorganise and rationalise publicly funded support for R & D in the food and drinks industry are beginning to have an effect, and in some respects the prospects for university food research have never been brighter. There are, however, several unsatisfactory aspects in this situation. Current government policy is to cut-back university funding to the detriment, inter alia, of staffing for food science, thereby restricting the number of research supervisors in a declared area of national priority! This is also harmful in that staff can no longer handle small enquiries and problems from industry, so impairing relations which are already tenuous. Finally, inability to recruit replacement and new staff is preventing the universities from leading the way into new applications of molecular biology and biotechnology in foodstuffs.

This paper looks at the contribution made by the Central Institutions sector in general, and The Queen's College, Glasgow in particular, to the teaching of food studies and the development of related research in Scotland. It traces briefly the developments in food studies over the last 100 years in home economics, dietetics and catering and discusses current concepts in food studies in these disciplines.

The food studies teaching that now forms an integral part of the work of students on higher diploma, degree and postgraduate courses continues to develop due to the growth of staff research investigations and student project work. An important research tradition is being established in the Central Institutions and of particular note is the impressive number of research projects related to food studies.

Course syllabuses are constantly being reviewed and updated in the light of recent developments and changes in society, industry, technology and research. The work at The Queen's College, Glasgow is an example of the developments in food studies at other Central Institutions and illustrates the commitment to the continued development of vocational courses by this sector of education.

This paper gives a brief description of the United Kingdom's fish processing industry and possible future trends. Although the consumption offish in the United Kingdom is relatively modest, about 100 species are used to satisfy this demand. Processing such a diverse resource is difficult and this is exacerbated by uncertainties of supply, seasonal quality fluctuations and the rapid spoilage changes that occur when fish are kept at ambient temperatures.

The food market is highly competitive, which means that processors must make the best possible use of the resource to reduce costs and yet stimulate demand by improving the end product. This is often difficult to do using traditional practices, and so the industry has had to develop novel processing methods to make both conventional products and new ones that will stimulate demand. In the past the specialist retailer, the fishmonger, could be depended upon not only to encourage the purchase of fish but also to provide the finishing touches and to give some instruction on how to cook it. Stimulation of interest and assistance cannot be given so readily in retailing through supermarkets, and so the processor has had to give more attention to presentation, packaging and ensuring that the product can be cooked with little further preparation.