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9. One of sportswriter Tom Boswell's “99 Reasons Why Baseball Is Better Than Football” is that “in football, it's team first, individual second — if at all.… A baseball player is an individual first, part of a team second. You can study him at length and at leisure in the batter's box or on the mound. On defense, when the batted ball seeks him, so do our eyes” (Boswell, , The Heart of the Order [New York: Penguin, 1989]), p. 32).Google Scholar

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17. This sentiment is echoed by former Senator Eugene J. McCarthy, who identifies the fact that “the individual player is under constant surveillance and clearly responsible” as one of the “significant ways” in which baseball is “different from other major sports” (McCarthy, Preface to Frank, Lawrence, Playing Hardball: The Dynamics of Baseball Folk Speech [New York: Peter Long, 1983], p. x)Google Scholar. George Will begins Men at Work with the following story: “A few years ago, in the Speaker's Dining Room in the U.S. Capitol, a balding, hawk-nosed Oklahoma cattleman rose from the luncheon table and addressed his host, Tip O'Neill. The man who rose was Warren Spahn, the winningest left-hander in the history of baseball. Spahn was one of a group of former All-Stars who were in Washington to play in an old-timers' game. Spahn said: ‘Mr. Speaker, baseball is a game of failure. Even the best batters fail about 65 percent of the time. The two Hall of Fame pitchers here today [Spahn, 363 wins, 245 losses; and Bob Gibson, 251 wins, 174 losses] lost more games than a team plays in a full season. I just hope you fellows in Congress have more success than baseball players have.’” Will comments, “The fellows in Congress don't, and they know it. There are no 400 hitters in Washington. And players in the game of government are spared the sort of remorselessly objective measurement of their performance that ball players see in box scores everyday” (Will, George F., Men At Work: The Craft of Baseball [New York: Macmillan, 1990], p. 1).Google Scholar

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29. Reagan, Ronald, A Time for Choosing: The Speeches of Ronald Reagan, 1961–1982, ed. Baltizer, Alfred A. and Bonetto, Gerald M. (Chicago: Regnery Gateway, 1984), p. 192Google Scholar; and Speaking My Mind, pp. 64–65.Google Scholar

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31. The first formal baseball game in Japan is said to have been organized in 1873 by Albert Bates, an American teacher at Kaitaku University in Tokyo, and the first team was established ten years later by Hiroshi Hiraoka, a railway engineer who had become a Red Sox fan as a student in Boston. By the end of the 19th Century, organized baseball was being played in Japanese prep schools and colleges (giving rise to fierce and often violent rivalries), and in December, 1934, Matsutaro Shoriki, owner of the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun, formed the first Japanese professional team, the Dai Nippon Tokyo Yakyu Kurabu (the Great Tokyo Baseball Club), later renamed the Tokyo Giants.

32. van Wolferen, Karel, The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 314.Google Scholar

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36. Seymour points out that “raw figures do not reveal the extent to which Ruth dominated his era [and] outdistanced his contemporaries. For example, his 60 home runs of 1927 represented 13.7 per cent of all the home runs hit in the whole American League. He hit more homers that year than each of twelve major-league teams” (Golden Age, pp. 426–27)Google Scholar. Moreover, Ruth was the rare slugger who hit for a high average (his lifetime batting average was 342), and before he was converted to a full-time hitter in 1919, he was an outstanding pitcher whose 1.75 earned run average led the league in 1915, who never lost a World Series game, and. who outdueled Walter Johnson six times out of nine, three times winning by a score of 1–0 (p. 427).

37. Quoted in Seymour, , Golden Age, p. 433.Google Scholar

38. Seymour, , Golden Age, p. 433.Google Scholar

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49. An earned run is one for which the pitcher is held responsible. If an error contributes to a run or prolongs an inning, any subsequent runs are unearned. The earned run average (ERA) is an index of a pitcher's effectiveness and indicates the number of earned runs allowed per nine innings.

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63. Quoted in Guttmann, , Whale New Ball Game, p. 58Google Scholar. Noting that Fullerton “exaggerated his point and probably confuses causes and effects” in this statement, Guttmann comments, “Doubts are in order about the inculcation of fair play, but baseball was unquestionably a vehicle for Americanization.” Fullerton was aware that “baseball” was not always synonymous with “fair play”: Seymour reports that “Fullerton once said with refreshing candor that in baseball almost anything short of maiming and injuring an opponent was permissible” (Golden Age, p. 91)Google Scholar. This fact was brought home to him with a vengeance in 1919. The day after the 1919 World Series ended, “Fullerton hinted broadly that it had not been above board” (p. 295). Eliot Asinof describes Fullerton as “honest and diligent” (Asinof, , Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series [1963; rept. New York: Henry Holt, 1987], p. 45)Google Scholar. Fullerton was instrumental in pushing for an investigation of the World Series fix; according to Asinof, “His love for the game permitted no whitewashing. He insisted on a cleanup. With a sense of outrage he began a series of articles to jolt the executive world of baseball into action. He would expose, finally, what every decent baseball writer knew, but never had the courage to write” (p. 132).

64. Roth, Philip, “My Baseball Years,” in Reading Myself and Others (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975), p. 180.Google Scholar

65. Barzun, , God's Country and Mine, p. 161Google Scholar. The idea that “the world is our stage” since “it's us children having fun” sounds a bit more sinister to a late 20th century reader than it might have to Barzun's readers in 1954, since we now know (for example) that American G.I.'s in Vietnam thought of themselves as playing “Cowboys and Indians” (see Herr, Michael, Dispatches [New York: Knopf, 1977], p. 71).Google Scholar

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81. Orenstein, Peggy, “Making it in the Majors,” New York Times Magazine, 05 24, 1992, p. 24.Google Scholar

82. Even the idea that “youths of both sexes” can play baseball together becomes a subject for mirth in The Bad News Bears (1973), where much of the comedy arises from the fact that Tatum O'Neal plays a young girl with a better fastball and a fouler mouth than her male peers and becomes the star of a Little League team.

83. Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth, Feminism Without Illusions: A Critique of Individualism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), p. 253.Google Scholar

84. Quoted in Rounds, Kate, “Where is Our Field of Dreams?” Ms., 09–10, 1991, p. 45.Google Scholar

85. Fox-Genovese, , Feminism Without Illusions, p. 254.Google Scholar

86. Goodwin, Doris Kearns, “From Father, with Love,” Literati on the Red Sox (special section), Boston Globe, 10 6, 1986, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar

87. Seymour, , People's Game, p. 532.Google Scholar

88. Giamatti, , Take Time for Paradise, pp. 63–64.Google Scholar

89. Kurkjian, Tim, “Dark Days for Baseball,” Sports Illustrated, 12 21, 1992, p. 44.Google Scholar

90. Scully, Gerald, The Business of Major League Baseball (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), pp. xi–xii.Google Scholar

91. Guttmann, , Whole New Ball Game, p. 66.Google Scholar

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93. By mid-July of 1919, it had become clear that the owners' fears of financial difficulty were unfounded: attendance was up, especially at Comiskey Park. The White Sox players, however, did not receive any salary increases (see Asinof, , Eight Men Out, pp. 15–22).Google Scholar

94. This paragraph is indebted to Guttmann, , Whole New Ball Game, pp. 63–69.Google Scholar

95. Quoted in Guttmann, , Whole New Ball Game, p. 66.Google Scholar

96. Guttmann, , Whole New Ball Game, p. 68.Google Scholar

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98. Sands, Jack and Gammons, Peter, Coming Apart at the Seams: How Baseball Owners, Players, and Television Executives Have Led Our National Pastime to the Brink of Disaster (New York: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 13, 4–5.Google Scholar

99. Guttmann, , Whole New Ballgame, pp. 68–69, 60–63, 69.Google Scholar

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102. The Natural, directed by Barry Levinson, written by Phil Dusenberry and Roger Towne, cinematography by Caleb Deschanel, starring Redford, Robert, Close, Glenn, Duvall, Robert, Brimley, Wilford, and Farnsworth, Richard, Tri-Star, , 1984.Google Scholar

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108. Bang the Drum Slowly, directed by John Hancock, written by Harris, Mark, DeNiro, starring Robert, Gardenia, Vincent, and Moriarty, Michael, Paramount, 1973.Google Scholar

109. Kaufmann, , “Including the Supernatural,” 24Google Scholar; Fimrite, Ron, “A Star With Real Clout,” Sports Illustrated, 05 7, 1984, pp. 93–108Google Scholar; Schickel, Richard, “Swinging for the Fences,” Time, 05 14, 1984, p. 91Google Scholar; and Ansen, David, “Robert Redford: An American Ail-Star,” Newsweek, 05 28, 1984, p. 75.Google Scholar

110. Ansen, , “Robert Redford,” p. 76.Google Scholar

111. Sarris, Andrew, “The Natural Meets Supernatural,” Village Voice, 05 22, 1984, p. 57Google Scholar; and Harmetz, Aljean, “Lowry and Malamud Tested on Film,” New York Times, 06 14, 1984, p. C17.Google Scholar

112. Harmetz, , “Lowry and Malamud,” p. C17.Google Scholar

113. Kaufmann, , “Including the Supernatural,” 25.Google Scholar Walter Kerr commented that despite the “scolding” that many critics felt obliged to heap on the film for tampering with its source, “it was plain that the changes made in the film's climax and ending were what saved it as a commercial venture” (Kerr, , “Don't Blame the Screenwriter When the Glue is Missing,” New York Times, 11 25, 1984, p. A13)Google Scholar, and David Ansen wrote that “whatever crime against literature The Natural is accused of-like leaving the audience feeling good rather than filled with dread at the tragic flaw in the American character - they have nothing to do with the movie most people will see. That movie, an upbeat but intriguingly somber fairy tale about the resurrection of a lost soul, may have problems of its own, but it's a rich, solid and unusually satisfying tall tale. One can safely say that if the filmmakers had presented 1984 audiences with Malamud's downbeat ending, a lot of popcorn would have been hurled at the screen” (Ansen, , “Robert Redford”).Google Scholar

114. Farber, Stephen, “An All-Star Team Puts ‘The Natural’ on Film,” New York Times, 05 6, 1984, p. 2:17.Google Scholar

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116. Shaughnessy, Dan, “A Nobody as the Hero? It's Only Natural,” Boston Globe, 09 29, 1990, p. 31.Google Scholar For Shaughnessy, the story is “wonderful” in large part because Stone seems to be every inch the “hayseed.” Shaughnessy reports, “We can't tell you much about him. There are plenty of Jeff Stone stories, but few have been verified. Many, no doubt, are apocryphal. He denies many of them. Stone has played with the Phillies, the Orioles, the Rangers. Legend has it that before he signed, he was clocked in the 40 while running in a Missouri cornfield. He began his pro career in Bend, Ore., and people there claim he asked if the moon over Bend was the same moon he looked at in Missouri. A writer took him to dinner and offered him a shrimp cocktail and Stone allegedly said, ‘I don't drink.’ Stone had trouble getting to sleep one night in Pittsburgh, and when his teammates told him to count sheep, he replied, ‘There are no sheep in Pittsburgh.’ He took a television set to winter ball in Venezuela, and when it didn't pick up any good American stations, he decided the TV was no good and should be thrown away. Much of the above is no doubt exaggerated, but you get the idea. Stone is one of the last of the innocents, trying to make a name in this graceless age.”

117. Field of Dreams, written and directed by Phil Alden Robinson, cinematography by John Lindley, starring Kevin Costner, James Earl Jones, Burt Lancaster, and Amy Madigan, Lawrence Gordon Productions/Universal, 1989.

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119. The film City Slickers (directed by Ron Underwood and written by Ganz, Lowell and Mandell, Babaloo, Columbia, 1991)Google Scholar offers a more whimsical portrayal of the web of associations that link baseball to rugged individualism, father-son relations, and male bonding in general. Mitch (Billy Crystal), Phil (Daniel Stern), and Ed (Bruno Kirby) are three friends who decide to take part in a cattle drive as therapy for their various midlife crises. Mitch, who finds himself uncomfortable with Western-style hats, wears a New York Mets cap for most of the drive. Midway through the film, the only woman participant in the drive, Bonnie (Helen Slater), asks the men to explain their fascination with baseball. “I like baseball,” she says: “I just never understood how you guys could spend so much time discussing it. I mean, I've been to games, but I don't memorize … who played third base for Pittsburgh … in 1960.” When the three answer “Don Hoak” almost simultaneously, she feels that her point has been proved. Women, she tells them, talk about “real life. Relationships. Are they working? Are they not? Who she's seeing? Is that working?” A few moments later, Phil (who will eventually become her love interest) tells her, “You're right, I suppose, I mean I guess it is childish, but … when I was about 18 and my dad and I couldn't communicate about anything at all, we could still talk about baseball. Now, that was real.” Bonnie looks at him in a way that suggests that she finds what he has said moving. The climactic sequence of the film occurs when the cattle drive must cross a stream in bad weather. Mitch risks his life to save a calf that he pulled from the womb of its dying mother earlier in the film; swept away by the rushing current, both Mitch and the calf are saved - barely - by the outstretched arms, first of Phil, then of Ed. With sentimental music playing on the soundtrack, Ed yells at Mitch, “You're crazy. You talk about me, but you're crazy,” to which Phil adds, “You could have been killed.” Ed, his voice quavering with emotion, then says, “We almost lost you pal.” A few moments later, Mitch says, “Nice catch. It was like Mays in the '54 World Series.” Immediately, both Ed and Phil chime in with the name of the man who hit the drive that forced Mays to make his famous over-the-shoulder catch: “Vic Wertz.” Then Ed kisses Mitch on the forehead, and a few moments later the three of them burst out laughing, as the camera pans back and the scene ends. Baseball provides these men with a communal vocabulary, a set of names, images, and events that they have shared with their fathers and can share amongst themselves. Unable to speak plainly about their feelings and relationships (as Bonnie claims that women do), the men use baseball as a substitute language, a way of expressing the spontaneous overflow of emotion. Baseball links them to their fathers, to one another, and to their calves. The film ends when Mitch brings the calf home to his family (temporarily, he says, en route to a petting zoo) and is reconciled to his wife.

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