Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-dwq4g Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-29T17:41:07.147Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Utopia and Reality: An Image of the United States in Russian Liberal and Radical Publications (End of the 19th to the Beginning of the 20th Century)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 July 2009

Get access

Extract

In the 19th century, some Russian intellectuals concluded that democracy was the country's probable future. By the middle of the century, this eventually led to the West and its democratic traditions being directly linked to images of Utopia. From that date forward, this approach to the West has had a central role in modern Russian political thought.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes

1. About Russian perceptions of America, see Laserson, Max M., The American Impact on Russia — Diplomatic and Ideological — 1784–1917 (New York: Macmillan, 1950)Google Scholar; Boden, Dieter, Das Amerkabild im russische Schrifttum bis zum Ende des 19, Jahrhunderts (Hamburg: De Gruyter, 1968)Google Scholar; Kuropiatnik, G. P., Rossiia i SShA: Ekonomicheskie, kul'turnye i diplomaticheskie sviazi: 1867–1881 (Moscow: Nauka, 1981), 134Google Scholar; Rougle, Charles, Three Russians Consider America: Amerika in the Works of Maksim Gor'kii, Aleksandr Blok, and Vladimir Majakovskij (Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1977)Google Scholar; Reilly, Alayne P., America in Contemporary Soviet Literature (New York: New York University Press, 1971)Google Scholar; Gilbert, Stephen O., Soviet Images of America, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1976)Google Scholar; Barghoorn, Frederick C., The Soviet Image of the United States: A Study of Distortion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950)Google Scholar; Mills, Richard M., “Soviet Studies of American Politics,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 5, no. 1, (1975)Google Scholar; ibid., “One Theory in Search of Reality: The Development of United States Studies in the Soviet Union,” Political Science Quarterly 87, no. 1 (1972); Schwartz, Morton, Soviet Perspectives on the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966)Google Scholar; ibid, “The 1964 Presidential Elections Through Soviet Eyes,” Western Political Quarterly 19, no. 4 (1966); Kovalevsky, M. M., “American Impressions,” Russian Review 10 (1951)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Serebrianskaia, K. Z., “Russkaia zhurnalistika 1870–1890 ob amerikanskom kapitalizme,” Izvestiia AN SSSR Seriia istoiria, filosofiia (1950)Google Scholar; and Al'kova, I. K., “Istoriia i politika SShA na stranitsakh russkikh demokraticheskikh zhurnalov Delo i Slovo,” in Amerikanskii ezhegodnik: 1971 (Moscow, 1971)Google Scholar.

2. Lakier, Aleksandr Borisovich, Puteshestvie po Severo Amerikanskim Shtatam, Kanade i ostrovu Kube (St. Petersburg: Tipografiia Vul'fa, 1859)Google Scholar.

3. Leont'ev, Konstantin, Sobranie sochinenii, 12 vols. (St. Petersburg: Izdanie Sablina, 19121913), 1: 416Google Scholar.

4. Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 45Google Scholar.

5. Herzen, Aleksandr I., Sobranie sochinenii v tridtsati tomakh (Moscow, 19541957), 5: 141Google Scholar, 7: 334, 12: 398–403, 14: 32.

6. Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 92Google Scholar.

7. Up to the end of the 19th century, emigration from Russia was prohibited. Those emigrants who decided to return were arrested even when they were foreign citizens (Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 230Google Scholar).

8. Russkie Vedomosti, August 13, 1901; see also Iverskaia, P. A., “Moia zhizn'v Amerike,” Vestnik Evropy, 08 1894, 32Google Scholar; Machet, G. A., Polnoe sobranie sochinenii 8 vols. (St. Petersburg, n.d.), 1: 69Google Scholar: Mak-Gakhan, V., “Pauperizm v Soedinennykh Shtatakh,” Vestnik Evropy, 08 1891, 709Google Scholar; A. K., “Russkii rabochii u amerikanskogo plantatora,” Vestnik Evropy, 06 1873Google Scholar; ibid., September 1877, 159; S.P., , “Novye zolotye priiski v Aliaske,” Mir Bozhii, 12 1897, 41Google Scholar; and A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 09 1873, 161Google Scholar.

9. Druzhinin, A., “Angliiskii nabliudatel' v Severnoi Amerike,” Russkii Vestnik 44 (1863): 274–75Google Scholar; Novoe Vremia, August 11, 1982 and May 21, 1893; and Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 183, 186Google Scholar.

10. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 07 1873, 46, 5758Google Scholar; and Anon., “Amerikanskaia fabrika-klub: N'iu-Erskaia konferentsiia mira, Mir Bozhii, 03 1902, 3842Google Scholar.

11. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 34Google Scholar, and June 1873, 701, 710, 712; Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 691Google Scholar; and Mendel, Arthur, Dilemma of Progress in Tsarist Russia: Legal Marxism and Legal Populism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1961), 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Even conservative intellectuals occasionally acknowledged this (Novoe Vremia, June 4, 1893).

12. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 27Google Scholar.

13. Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 185, 187Google Scholar.

14. Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy i evropeiskaia imigratsiia,” Vestnik Evropy, 10 1890, 539Google Scholar; Kurbskii, A.S., “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy: Poezdka russkago rabochego v Indian Territorii,” Vestnik Evropy, 10 1874, 633Google Scholar; Tverskoi, A., “Moia zhizn' v Amerike,” Vestnik Evropy, 01 1894, 32Google Scholar; A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 35Google Scholar; Rubinov, I., “Rabochii vopros v Amerikanskom zakonodatel'stve,” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 09 1908, 116Google Scholar; Novoe Vremia, August 11 and September 21, 1892; Russkie Vedomosti, June 22 and August 22, 1901; and Sivachev, Nikolai V. and Yakovlev, Nikolai N., Russia and the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 15Google Scholar.

15. Bolyi, K. G., “Immigratsiia v S.A. Shtaty,” Vestnik Evropy, 09 1906Google Scholar; Russkie Vedomosti, July 25, 1912; A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” Vestnik Evropy, 06 1873, 692–94Google Scholar; and ibid., July 1873, 688, 695–97.

16. Ibid., July 1873, 21.

17. Ibid., July 1873, 712–13.

18. Ibid., 709, 711, 713.

19. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 275–76Google Scholar.

20. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 720Google Scholar; and Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy i evropeiskaia emigratsiia,” Vestnik Evropy, 11 1890, 167, 190, 532Google Scholar.

21. Russkoe Slovo, July 18, 1910; Rafailov, M., “Evreiskaia emigratsiia v Londone,” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 02 1900; Russkie Vedomosti, 11 2, 1903Google Scholar; and Herzen, , Sobranie sochinenii, 11: 333Google Scholar. In some cases, the émigrés' lives were not as bad as they claimed, in the sense that their standard of living and their diet were better than those of the majority of Russians (ibid.).

22. Ulam, Adam B., In the Name of the People (New York: Viking, 1977), 396Google Scholar.

23. Herzen, , Sobranie sochinenii, 11: 185, 198Google Scholar.

24. Shchepetev, A., “Russkie v Parizhe,” Russkaia Mysl' 8 (1972): 139Google Scholar; Nesterov, Gr., Iz dnevnika maksimilista (Paris, 1910), 223Google Scholar; Russkie Vedomosti, February 19, 1913; Deutscher, Isaak, The Prophet Armed: Trotsky, 1870–1921 (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1954), 64Google Scholar; Chamberlin, William, The Russian Revolution: 1917–1921, 2 vols. (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1965), 1: 126Google Scholar; and Chaikovskii, Nikolai Vasil'evich: Religioznye i obshchestvennye iskaniia (Paris, 1929), 179Google Scholar.

25. Somova, E., “Poslednee slovo: Iz istorii russkikh v Amerike,” Russkii Vestnik 44 (1863)Google Scholar.

26. Russkie Vedomosti, 08 3, 1901Google Scholar.

27. Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 181, 185Google Scholar.

28. Ibid., 188, 190.

29. Druzhinin, “Angliiskii nabliudatel'.”

30. Novoe Vremia, December 25, 1906. About conservative intellectuals' view on Russian emigration to America, see Rogov, A. S., “Nashi pereselentsy v Brazilii,” Russkii Vestnik, 10 1891Google Scholar. Pointing to the hardships of American life, the conservative newspapers were eager to inform their readers about strikes in the country (Novoe Vremia, June 5, 1893).

31. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 125, 131Google Scholar; and Krzhevitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim okeanom,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1895, 100101Google Scholar.

32. Anon., “Za granitsei,” Mir Bozhii, 08 1900, 3334Google Scholar; Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 694Google Scholar; Cherevkova, A. A., “Boston i narodnoe obrazovanie v Amerike,” Russkaia Mysl' 7 (1903): 93, 103, 105, 107Google Scholar; Anon., “Amerikanskaia fabrika-klub,” 42Google Scholar; Ianzhul, Iv. Iv., “Amerikanskaia ezhednevnaia pressa: Eia obychai i nravy,” Vestnik Evropy, 02 1894, 523Google Scholar; Krzhevitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim okeanom,” 98Google Scholar; and Beliustin, I. I., “Religioznaia zhizn' v Soedinenykh Shtatakh,” Russkii Vestnik, 04 1866, 533–34Google Scholar.

33. Cherevkova, , “Boston,” 100Google Scholar; Ianzhul, , “Amerikanskaia ezhednevnaia pressa,” 528Google Scholar; Anon., “Amerikanskie stranstvuiushchie biblioteki,” Mir Bozhii, 04 1895 and 04 1896Google Scholar; and Anon., “Fermerskoe obshchestvo domashnego chteniia v S. Amerike,” Mir Bozhii, 10 1895Google Scholar; Druzhinin, , “Angliiskii nabliudatel',” 268Google Scholar. E. M. Kovalevsky was especially eager to stress the fine qualities of American libraries, especially their wealth. For example, he wrote that, responding to some extent to a growing interest in Russia, a rich collection of Russian books was compiled in Harvard, (Russkie Vedomosti, 08 27 and 09 4, 1901)Google Scholar.

34. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 592Google Scholar; Ianzhul, , “Amerikanskaia ezhednevnaia pressa,” 519Google Scholar; Krzhevitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim okeanom,” 91Google Scholar; Anon., “Telfonoe soobshchenie v Amerike,” Mir Bozhii, 04 1893Google Scholar; Anon., “Vysokie doma v. Soedinenykh Shtatakh,” Mir Bozhii, 01 1893Google Scholar; Anon., “Amerikanskaia premiia za izuchenie vozdukha”; and Anon., “Bezrogii amerikanskii skot,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1893Google Scholar.

35. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie Sochinenii, 1: 278Google Scholar; Druzhinin, , “Angliiskii nabliudatel',” 265, 279Google Scholar; Rubinov, I., “Zhenshchina v amerikanskikh universitetakh,” Russkaia Mysl' 7 (1908): 117Google Scholar; ibid., “V negritianskom universitete,” Russkaia Mysl', January 1910, 83–84; Kamentsev, Iv., “Studencheskaia molodezh v Amerike,” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 05 1897, 232Google Scholar; Russkie Vedomosti, 22 June 1901; Ianzhul, , “Amerikanskaia ezhednevnaia pressa,” 502, 517Google Scholar; A.L., , “God v Amerike: Iz vospominanii zhenshchiny-medika,” Vestnik Evropy, 0910 1881, 34Google Scholar; Kamentsev, , “Studencheskaia molodezh v Amerike,” 210, 215, 232, 235Google Scholar; Krzhivitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim okeanom,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1895, 100Google Scholar; Ross, Edward Alsworth, Russia in Upheaval (New York, 1918), 251Google Scholar; and Kuropiatnik, , Rossiia i SShA, 182Google Scholar.

36. About conservatives' view on American democracy, see “Demokratiia: Amerikanskii roman,” July 1883; and M-skago, A. P., “Zaatlanticheskaia demokratiia,” Russkii Vestnik, 10, 11, and 12 1890Google Scholar.

37. Somova, E., “Poslednee slovo: Iz istorii zhizni russkikh v Amerike,” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 08 1897, 11, 15Google Scholar; and A.K., , “Russkii rabochii u amerikanskogo plantatora,” Vestnik Europy, 07 1873 21Google Scholar.

38. Novoe Vremia, August 11, 1892. One could also add that conservative intellectuals were not consistent and occasionally presented varied viewpoints on America (ibid., June 4, 1898).

39. Somova, , “Poslednee slovo,” 9, 218, 226Google Scholar; Mak-Gakhan, , A'merikantsy,” 10 1890Google Scholar; ibid., “Pauperizm v Soedinennykh Shtatakh,” Vestnik Europy, July 1891, 280, 287, and August 1891, 583.

40. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 09 1873, 157, 158Google Scholar.

41. Kuropiatnik, , Rossia i Ssha, 188Google Scholar.

42. Mak-Gakhan, , “Pauperizm,” 1881, 572–73Google Scholar; A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 159; Russkie Vedomosti, 06 22 and 08 21, 1910Google Scholar; and Tsimerman, I., “Puteshestvie po Amerike,” Russkii Vestnik 24 (1859): 748Google Scholar. Even some of the Russian conservative intellectuals acknowledged that the majority of Americans were ready to help (Druzhinin, , “Angliiskii nabliudatel',” 262Google Scholar). As those Russian intellectuals who visited the United States admitted, a strong feeling of personal responsibility for public affairs differentiated Americans from citizens of other countries (Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 11 1874, 255Google Scholar). Some Russians held the view that, while all Americans were strongly attached to these ideas, this idea was especially popular in California (Tverskoi, , “Moia zhizn' v Amerike,” 35Google Scholar; about his life in America, see Novoe Russkoe Slovo, December 19, 1982, and March 8 and 9, 1983).

43. Tsimerman, , “Puteshestvie,” 773Google Scholar.

44. Zombart, Verner, “Ocherki iz istorii razvitiia Severo-Amerikanskogo proletariata,” Vestnik Evropy 2 (1906): 95Google Scholar.

45. Mak-Gakhan, , “Pauperizm,” 585Google Scholar.

46. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 07 1873, 33, 4041Google Scholar.

47. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 134, 523–87Google Scholar.

48. Anon., “Kul't voennykh geroev v Amerike,” Mir Bozhii, 11 1899Google Scholar; Russkie Vedemosti, October 29, 1903; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 276Google Scholar.

49. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 160–61Google Scholar.

50. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 233Google Scholar.

51. Russkie Vedomosti, 06 14 and 20, 1901Google Scholar.

52. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 711Google Scholar.

53. Ibid.

54. Novoe Vremia, 08 20, 1893Google Scholar.

55. Somova, , “Poslednee slovo,” 06 1897, 206Google Scholar; and Russkie Vedomosti, June 22, 1901.

56. Anon., “Amerikanskie oratory: Shkoly, muzei dlia detei v Amerike,” Mir Bozhii, 11 1900Google Scholar.

57. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 231Google Scholar; A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 07 1873, 2324Google Scholar; and Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy,” 11 1890, 185–93Google Scholar.

58. Cherevkova, , “Boston,” 97Google Scholar; and Kovrova, A., “Zhenshchiny i zhenskoe vospitanie v Soedinennykh Shtatakh,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1896Google Scholar.

59. Rubinovich, A., “O nekotorykh ustranimykh prichinakh prostitutsii,” Vestnik Prava, 01 1905, 138Google Scholar.

60. V.R., , “Zhenshchina v Soedinennykh Shtatakh,” Russkaia Mysl' 7 (1893): 94Google Scholar.

61. Dioneo, , “Londonskie Iviafany (Pis'mo iz Anglii),” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 02 1898, 67Google Scholar.

62. V.R., , “Zhenshchina,” 98Google Scholar; see also Rubinovich, , “O nekotorykh,” 137Google Scholar.

63. V.R., , “Zhenshchina,” 98Google Scholar.

64. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 06 1873, 702Google Scholar.

65. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 10 1874, 593Google Scholar.

66. Chernova, A.A., “Niagara, N'iu-Iork: Iz puteshestviia po Amerike,” Russkaia Mysl' 11 (1902): 37Google Scholar, and no. 12 (1902): 137, 152.

67. Russkie Vedemosti, 09 4, 1901Google Scholar.

68. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 131Google Scholar.

69. Beliutsin, , “Religioznaia zhizn',” 531Google Scholar; Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin v Soedinennykh Shtatakh Ameriki,” Mir Bozhii, 01 1895Google Scholar; Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy: 216–17, 223, 229–31, 233, 249, 633Google Scholar; and October 1879, 626; ibid., “Amerikanskie pionery,” Vestnik Evropy, August 1875, 573; and Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 709Google Scholar.

70. V.R., , “Zhenshchina,” 9293Google Scholar.

71. Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 109–10Google Scholar; Rubinov, , “Zhenshchina,” 121; and Mak-Gakhan, “Amerikantsy,” 10 1890, 530Google Scholar.

72. V.R., , “Zhenshchina,” 98Google Scholar; and Novoe Vremia, May 25, 1890.

73. Rubinov, I., “Ob amerikanskoi prisluge,” Russkaia Mysl' no. 2 (1906)Google Scholar; A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 43; Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 109Google Scholar; and Chernova, , “Pokrovitel'stvo rabotaiushchim zhenshchinam v Soedinennykh Shtatakh,” Mir Bozhii, 09 1893Google Scholar.

74. Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 1895Google Scholar.

75. Chernova, , “Niagara,” no. 2 (1902): 138Google Scholar.

76. Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 11 1900Google Scholar.

77. Anon., “Iz oblati zhenskogo dvizheniia,” Mir Bozhii, 11 1900Google Scholar; Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 698Google Scholar; “Zhenshchina v Amerikanskikh universitetakh,” Russkaia Mysl' no. 7 (1908)Google Scholar; Russkie Vedomosti, September 4, 1901; and Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 01 1895, 8889, 108, 110Google Scholar. About women's involvement in America's cultural life, see E., , “Zhenshchina na Chikagskoi vystavke,” Mir Bozhii, 02 1893Google Scholar; Anon., “Zhenskoe dvizhenie”; Anon., “Zhenskii Soiuz,” Mir Bozhii, 06 1893Google Scholar; and Anon., “Bor'ba zhenshchin protiv p'ianstva v Amerike,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1895Google Scholar.

78. Somova, , “Poslednee slovo,” Russkoe Bogatstuo, 09 1897, 1011, 231Google Scholar.

79. Novoe Vremia, November 9, 1893. One might also add that journalists from Novoe Vremia (New Time) were not always consistent and occasionally displayed Americans' approach to law in quite the opposite way (Novoe Vremia, September 21, 1892).

80. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 06 1873, 683, 699, 714Google Scholar.

81. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 593, 596, 598Google Scholar.

82. See, for example, the view on this subject by conservative journalists (Druzhinin, , “Angliiskii nabliudatel',” 187Google Scholar).

83. The journalists admitted that many crime victims unjustly blamed Americans. Many of them were mistreated not by Americans but by fellow émigrés (often from the victim's country) who took advantage of the victims' trust (Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 268Google Scholar).

84. Tsimerman, , “Puteshestvie po Amerike,” 767Google Scholar; and Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 293Google Scholar.

85. Krzhevitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim okeanom,” 97Google Scholar; and A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 09 1873, 161Google Scholar.

86. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 596Google Scholar.

87. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” Vestnik Evropy, 12 1891Google Scholar.

88. See, for example, Beliutsin, , “Religioznaia zhizn',” 04 1886Google Scholar. About conservative intellectuals' vision of American life, see also E.K.S., , “Religioznaia zhizn' v Severnoi Amerike,” Russkii Vestnik, 09 and 02 1883 and 02 1884Google Scholar.

89. Biddis, Michael, Father of Racist Ideology: The Social and Political Thought of Count Cobineau (London, 1970), 205–6Google Scholar.

90. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 712Google Scholar; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 42Google Scholar. While stressing the problem, the journalists from Vestnik Evropy, for example, pointed out that even American English was affected by the influence of foreign languages (A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 09 1873, 162Google Scholar).

91. Dubnov, Semen M., History of the Jews in Russia and Poland: From Earliest Time Until the Present Day, 3 vols. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 19161920), 1: 285, 3: 330Google Scholar.

92. Ibid.

93. Absence of compulsory military service in the United States provided additional encouragement for Russian Jews to emigrate to America (Garvi, P. A., Vospominaniia Sotsial-Demokrata [New York, 1946], 353, 372Google Scholar). The American government in general encouraged immigration at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Bureaucracy, however, sometimes created a problem for some immigrants. Some of them were not allowed to land (Anon., “Kak pereselntsy pribyvaiut v Ameriky,” Niva 17 [1906]: 265Google Scholar). American sponsors increased the chance for successful immigration.

94. Dubnov, , History, 2: 297, 413Google Scholar.

95. Ibid., 2: 373, 409, 421; 3: 104, 148, 268.

96. Gosudarstvennaia Duma; Stenograficheskie otchety; Chetvertyi Sozyu; Sessia II, Chase' IV (St. Petersburg, 1914), 96Google Scholar. Curiously enough, these Jewish immigrants, together with others who stayed in America, were a boon for the Russian economy. Émigrés sent to their relatives in Russia 100 million rubles per year — the equivalent of 1/15th of the value of Russian exports (ibid., 87).

97. Ivaniukov, , “Amerikanskaia demokratiia,” 710Google Scholar; Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy,” 11 1890, 163Google Scholar; Russkie Vedemosti, 1859, 572–73; and Cherevkova, , “Boston,” 96Google Scholar.

98. Blank, R., “Amerikanskie nastroeniia: Pis'mo iz Niu-Erka,” Vestnik Evropy, 09 1916, 296Google Scholar.

99. Anon., “Deiatel'nost' zhenshchin,” 1895, 93Google Scholar.

100. Cherevkova, A. A., “Chikago: Iz puteshestviia po Amerike,” Russkaia Mysl' no. 11 (1902): 4950Google Scholar. About Americans' positive approach to Jews, also see Novoe Vremia, September 28, 1907.

101. Russkie Vedomosti, 08 3, 1901Google Scholar.

102. Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 4344Google Scholar.

103. Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy,” 536Google Scholar.

104. Ibid., November 1890, 175.

105. Ibid., October 1890, 532.

106. Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy,” 538Google Scholar.

107. Ibid., 535; and November 1890, 175, 185.

108. Blank, , “Amerikanskie nastroeniia,” 301Google Scholar.

109. A.K., “Russkii rabochii,” 07 1873, 59Google Scholar; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 111–12Google Scholar.

110. Ibid.

111. Krzhivitskii, , “Za Atlanticheskim,” Mir Bozhii, 07 1896, 93Google Scholar; and A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 39Google Scholar.

112. Tsimerman, , “Puteshestvie po Amerike,” p. 751Google Scholar.

113. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 06 1873, 595Google Scholar; July 1873, 29; and September 1873, 158; Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 634Google Scholar; Anon., “Deiatel'nost'zhenshchin,” 92Google Scholar; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 172Google Scholar.

114. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 07 1873, 31Google Scholar; and Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 636Google Scholar. While pointing to the ease with which Russians became assimilated, the liberal journalists juxtaposed them to the English. The latter, despite the knowledge of the language and general reputation that they enjoyed in America, had problems with assimilation more than any other émigré (ibid., 634; and A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 09 1873, 162Google Scholar).

115. Ibid., June 1873, 700.

116. Russkie Vedomosti, 07 25, 1912Google Scholar.

117. Ibid., October 29 and November 17, 1903 and July 4 1904; and Kuznezov, B., “Pereselentsy-zemledl'tsy v Severnoi Amerike,” Russkoe Bogatstvo, 08 1900Google Scholar.

118. A.K., , “Russkii rabochii,” 697Google Scholar; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 171Google Scholar.

119. A.L., , “God v Amerike: Iz vospominanii zhenshchiny-medika,” Vestnik Europy, 0910 1881, 68Google Scholar; and Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 07 1873, 53Google Scholar; June 1873, 595; October 1874, 634; and November 1874, 227.

120. Tverskoi, P. A. (P. Dement'ev), “Amerika dlia amerikantsev,” Vestnik Evropy, 12 1893Google Scholar; and Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 10 1874, 633Google Scholar.

121. Popov, P., “Pervoe desiateletie osvobozhdeniia negrov: I. Ianvaria 1863–1888,” Vestnik Evropy, 01 1888, 82, 84Google Scholar; Mak-Gakhan, , “Amerikantsy,” 522, 541, 783Google Scholar; Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 10 1876, 633–34Google Scholar; A.L., , “God v Amerike,” 65Google Scholar; and Rubinov, I., “V negritianskom universitete,” Russkaia Mysl', 01 1910, 26, 29, 32, 39Google Scholar.

122. Kurbskii, , “Severo-Amerikanskie okrainy,” 591, 595, 616–18, 620, 632, 635–36Google Scholar; Tsimerman, , “Puteshestvie po Amerike,” 763Google Scholar; and Machet, , Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 1: 4649, 114Google Scholar. About the conservative intellectuals' view on American Indians, see Ionin, A. S., “Indeitsy v Amerike (Iz putevykh ocherkov),” Russkii Vestnik, 01 1894Google Scholar.

123. Williams, Albert Rhys, Through the Russian Revolution (New York: Arno, 1967), 48, 51, 53Google Scholar; Bryant, Louise P., Six Red Months in Russia (New York: Arno, 1970), 277Google Scholar; Cantacuzen, Princess, Revolutionary Days (New York: Arno, 1970), 300Google Scholar; Sayler, Oliver M., Russia, White or Red (Boston: Little, Brown, 1919), 254Google Scholar; Poole, Ernest, The Dark People: Russia's Crisis (New York: Macmillan, 1918), 58Google Scholar; and Poole, , The Village: Russian Impressions (New York: Macmillan, 1919), 82Google Scholar. About the interest in America among Russian citizens on the eve of and during the February Revolution, see also Poole, , Village, 13Google Scholar; and Houghteling, James L. Jr, A Diary of the Russian Revolution (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1918), 172Google Scholar.

124. Ameel, Joseph, Red Hell: Twenty Years in Soviet Russia (R. Male, 1941), 104Google Scholar; Strong, Anna L., The First Time in History: Two Years of Russia's New Life (New York, 1924), 234, 241Google Scholar; Barghoorn, , Soviet Image, 213, 262Google Scholar; Murchland, Bernard, “A Soviet Impression of America: An Interview with Sergei Rogov,” Kettering Review, Fall 1986, 9Google Scholar; and Sovetskaia Kul'tura, January 16, 1980.

125. Gromyko, Andrei, Vneshniaia politika SShA: Uroki i deistvitel'nost': 60–70 gody (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia, 1978), 2, 76, 77, 20, 216Google Scholar; Sivachev, and Yakovlev, , Russia and the United States, 6, 14, 22, 49, 53, 83Google Scholar; Veltov, N., Uspekhi sotsializma v SSSR i ikh vliianie na SShA (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia, 1971), 30, 40Google Scholar; Sovetskii Soiuz glazami amerikantsev 1917–1977 (1979), 5254, 299, 318, 328, 331Google Scholar; Gvishiani, Liudmila, Sovetskaia Rossiia i SShA 1917–1920 (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia, 1970), 23, 104Google Scholar; Barghoorn, , Soviet Image, 2728, 5455, 207, 293, 215Google Scholar; and Pravda, March 24 and July 21, 1986. The official image of the United States started to change by the end of the Soviet regime (see, for example, Pravda, January 12, February 6, and March 14, 1988). One could also add that Russian émigré publications about America were mostly positive (see, for example, Poslednie Novosti, September 22, 1921, October 8, 1924; January 27 and July 29, 1925; November 1, 1927; January 31, 1928; and September 15, 1938; Vozrozhdenie, June 21, 1934; September 16, 1923; May 4, 1924; June 7, 1925; and March 10, 1926; Nikolaev, N., “Russkaia emigratsiia v N'iu-Iorke,” Nashe Slovo, 01 1937Google Scholar; Kaluzhin, N., “Anna McClar,” ‘Chikagskaia povest’,” Zarnitsy, 05 1926Google Scholar; Tul'pa, L., “Dusha Ameriki,” September 1926; and Anon., “Amerika-zashchitnitsa interesov Rossii,” Vysshii Monarchicheskii Sovet, 10 9, 1921)Google Scholar.

126. Novoe Russkoe Slovo, 10 3, 1987Google Scholar.