Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-m8s7h Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-19T11:57:12.104Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attentional bias toward negative stimuli in PTSD: an eye-tracking study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 October 2022

Emilie Veerapa ,
Pierre Grandgenevre ,
Guillaume Vaiva ,
Stéphane Duhem ,
Mohamed El Fayoumi ,
Benjamin Vinnac ,
Sébastien Szaffarczyk ,
Marielle Wathelet ,
Thomas Fovet  and
Fabien D'Hondt Open the ORCID record for Fabien D'Hondt [Opens in a new window]
Emilie Veerapa
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
Pierre Grandgenevre
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
Guillaume Vaiva
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France Centre national de ressources et de résilience Lille-Paris (CN2R), F-59000 Lille, France
Stéphane Duhem
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France Centre national de ressources et de résilience Lille-Paris (CN2R), F-59000 Lille, France Fédération de Recherche en Psychiatrie et Santé Mentale des Hauts-de-France, F-59000 Lille, France Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, CIC1403 – Clinical Investigation Center, F-59000 Lille, France
Mohamed El Fayoumi
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France
Benjamin Vinnac
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
Sébastien Szaffarczyk
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France
Marielle Wathelet
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France Centre national de ressources et de résilience Lille-Paris (CN2R), F-59000 Lille, France Fédération de Recherche en Psychiatrie et Santé Mentale des Hauts-de-France, F-59000 Lille, France
Thomas Fovet
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France Centre national de ressources et de résilience Lille-Paris (CN2R), F-59000 Lille, France
Fabien D'Hondt*
Affiliation:
Univ. Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, U1172 – LilNCog – Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, F-59000 Lille, France Department of Psychiatry, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France Centre national de ressources et de résilience Lille-Paris (CN2R), F-59000 Lille, France
*
Author for correspondence: Fabien D'Hondt, E-mail: fabien.d-hondt@univ-lille.fr
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Research on biased processing of aversive stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has produced inconsistent results between response time (RT) and eye-tracking studies. Recent RT-based results of dot-probe studies showed no attentional bias (AB) for threat while eye-tracking research suggested heightened sustained attention for this information. Here, we used both RT-based and eye-tracking measures to explore the dynamics of AB to negative stimuli in PTSD.

Methods

Twenty-three individuals diagnosed with PTSD, 23 trauma-exposed healthy controls, and 23 healthy controls performed an emotional dot-probe task with pairs of negative and neutral scenes presented for either 1 or 2 s. Analyses included eye movements during the presentation of the scenes and RT associated with target localization.

Results

There was no evidence for an AB toward negative stimuli in PTSD from RT measures. However, the main eye-tracking results revealed that all three groups showed longer dwell times on negative pictures than neutral pictures at 1 s and that this AB was stronger for individuals with PTSD. Moreover, although AB disappeared for the two groups of healthy controls with prolonged exposure, it persisted for individuals with PTSD.

Conclusion

PTSD is associated with an AB toward negative stimuli, characterized by heightened sustained attention toward negative scenes once detected. This study sheds light on the dynamics of AB to negative stimuli in PTSD and encourages us to consider optimized therapeutic interventions targeting abnormal AB patterns.

Keywords

Attentional biasdot-probe taskemotioneye-trackingPTSD
Type
Original Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 53 , Issue 12 , September 2023 , pp. 5809 - 5817
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Armstrong, T., Bilsky, S. A., Zhao, M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013). Dwelling on potential threat cues: An eye movement marker for combat-related PTSD. Depression and Anxiety, 30(5), 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of attention in the affective disorders: A meta-analytic review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(8), 704–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badura-Brack, A. S., Naim, R., Ryan, T. J., Levy, O., Abend, R., Khanna, M. M., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Effect of attention training on attention bias variability and PTSD symptoms: Randomized controlled trials in Israeli and U.S. Combat Veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(12), 1233–1241. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardeen, J. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2011). Attentional control as a moderator of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and attentional threat bias. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(8), 1008–1018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.06.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y. (2010). Research review: Attention bias modification (ABM): A novel treatment for anxiety disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51(8), 859–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02251.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Holoshitz, Y., Eldar, S., Frenkel, T. I., Muller, D., Charney, D. S., … Wald, I. (2010). Life-threatening danger and suppression of attention bias to threat. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(6), 694–698. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09070956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., Foote, J., Lovejoy, M., Wenzel, K., … Ruggiero, J. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(8), 1132–1136. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132.Google ScholarPubMed
Bjelland, I., Dahl, A. A., Haug, T. T., & Neckelmann, D. (2002). The validity of the hospital anxiety and depression scale: An updated literature review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 52(2), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(01)00296-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blake, D. D., Weathers, F. W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Gusman, F. D., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1995). The development of a clinician-administered PTSD scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02105408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A. (2019). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-art review of evidence and challenges. World Psychiatry, 18(3), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, N. T. M., & Clarke, P. J. F. (2017). Gaze-based assessments of vigilance and avoidance in social anxiety: A review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19(9), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0808-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clauss, K., Gorday, J. Y., & Bardeen, J. R. (2022). Eye tracking evidence of threat-related attentional bias in anxiety- and fear-related disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 93, 102142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102142.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, T. C., & Britton, J. C. (2018). Improving the psychometric properties of dot-probe attention measures using response-based computation. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 60, 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.01.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fani, N., Bradley-Davino, B., Ressler, K. J., & McClure-Tone, E. B. (2011). Attention bias in adult survivors of childhood maltreatment with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 35(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-010-9294-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fani, N., Jovanovic, T., Ely, T. D., Bradley, B., Gutman, D., Tone, E. B., & Ressler, K. J. (2012a). Neural correlates of attention bias to threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychology, 90(2), 134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.03.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fani, N., Tone, E. B., Phifer, J., Norrholm, S. D., Bradley, B., Ressler, K. J., … Jovanovic, T. (2012b). Attention bias toward threat is associated with exaggerated fear expression and impaired extinction in PTSD. Psychological Medicine, 42(3), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711001565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garner, M., Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Orienting and maintenance of gaze to facial expressions in social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(4), 760–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakamata, Y., Lissek, S., Bar-Haim, Y., Britton, J. C., Fox, N. A., Leibenluft, E., … Pine, D. S. (2010). Attention bias modification treatment: A meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 68(11), 982–990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iacoviello, B. M., Wu, G., Abend, R., Murrough, J. W., Feder, A., Fruchter, E., … Charney, D. S. (2014). Attention bias variability and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27(2), 232–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimble, M. O., Fleming, K., Bandy, C., Kim, J., & Zambetti, A. (2010). Eye tracking and visual attention to threating stimuli in veterans of the Iraq war. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(3), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.12.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleiner, M., Brainard, D., Pelli, D., Ingling, A., Murray, R., & Broussard, C. (2007). What's new in psychtoolbox-3. Perception, 36(14), 1.Google Scholar
Kruijt, A.-W. W., Parsons, S., & Fox, E. (2019). A meta-analysis of bias at baseline in RCTs of attention bias modification: No evidence for dot-probe bias towards threat in clinical anxiety and PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(6), 563–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakshman, M., Murphy, L., Mekawi, Y., Carter, S., Briscione, M., Bradley, B., … Powers, A. (2020). Attention bias towards threat in African American children exposed to early life trauma. Behavioural Brain Research, 383, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2008). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. Gainesville, FL.Google Scholar
Larsen, S. E., Bellmore, A., Gobin, R. L., Holens, P., Lawrence, K. A., & Pacella-LaBarbara, M. L. (2019). An initial review of residual symptoms after empirically supported trauma-focused cognitive behavioral psychological treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 63, 26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2019.01.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Abend, R., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Social anxiety is related to increased dwell time on socially threatening faces. Journal of Affective Disorders, 193, 282–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.01.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Ben-Zion, Z., Shamai, D., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2018). Free viewing of sad and happy faces in depression: A potential target for attention bias modification. Journal of Affective Disorders, 238, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.05.047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2017). Gaze-contingent music reward therapy for social anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(7), 649–656. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16080894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Suarez-Jimenez, B., Tamman, A., Falzon, L., Zhu, X., Edmondson, D. E., & Neria, Y. (2019). Attention to threat in posttraumatic stress disorder as indexed by eye-tracking indices: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 49(5), 705–726. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718002313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarov, A., Suarez-Jimenez, B., Zhu, X., Pine, D. S., Bar-Haim, Y., & Neria, Y. (2021). Attention allocation in posttraumatic stress disorder: An eye-tracking study. Psychological Medicine, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721000581.Google ScholarPubMed
Lee, J. H., & Lee, J. H. (2012). Attentional bias to violent images in survivors of dating violence. Cognition and Emotion, 26(6), 1124–1133. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2011.638906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, J. H., & Lee, J. H. (2014). Attentional bias towards emotional facial expressions in survivors of dating violence. Cognition and Emotion, 28(6), 1127–1136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.867834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLeod, C., Grafton, B., & Notebaert, L. (2019). Anxiety-linked attentional bias: Is it reliable? Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 15(1), 529–554. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.95.1.15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madan, C. R., Bayer, J., Gamer, M., Lonsdorf, T. B., & Sommer, T. (2018). Visual complexity and affect: Ratings reflect more than meets the eye. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNally, R. J. (2019). Attentional bias for threat: Crisis or opportunity? Clinical Psychology Review, 69, 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CPR.2018.05.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNally, R. J., Enock, P. M., Tsai, C., & Tousian, M. (2013). Attention bias modification for reducing speech anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51(12), 882–888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2013.10.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mekawi, Y., Murphy, L., Munoz, A., Briscione, M., Tone, E. B., Norrholm, S. D., … Powers, A. (2020). The role of negative affect in the association between attention bias to threat and posttraumatic stress: An eye-tracking study. Psychiatry Research, 284, 112674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morey, R. D. (2008). Confidence intervals from normalized data: A correction to Cousineau (2005). Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 4(2), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.04.2.p061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naim, R., Abend, R., Wald, I., Eldar, S., Levi, O., Fruchter, E., … Bar-Haim, Y. (2015). Threat-related attention bias variability and posttraumatic stress. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(12), 1242–1250. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., … Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool For mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paquette, D., Laporte, L., Bigras, M., & Zoccolillo, M. (2004). Validation of the French version of the CTQ and prevalence of the history of maltreatment. Santé Mentale Au Québec, 29(1), 201–220. https://doi.org/10.7202/008831ar.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2011). Prevalence and axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Results from wave 2 of the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 456–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powers, A., Fani, N., Murphy, L., Briscione, M., Bradley, B., Tone, E. B., … Jovanovic, T. (2019). Attention bias toward threatening faces in women with PTSD: Eye tracking correlates by symptom cluster. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1568133. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1568133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richards, H. J., Benson, V., Donnelly, N., & Hadwin, J. A. (2014). Exploring the function of selective attention and hypervigilance for threat in anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.10.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodebaugh, T. L., Scullin, R. B., Langer, J. K., Dixon, D. J., Huppert, J. D., Bernstein, A., … Lenze, E. J. (2016). Unreliability as a threat to understanding psychopathology: The cautionary tale of attentional bias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(6), 840–851. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rytwinski, N. K., Scur, M. D., Feeny, N. C., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2013). The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder among individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(3), 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmukle, S. C. (2005). Unreliability of the dot probe task. European Journal of Personality, 19(7), 595–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schnurr, P. P., & Lunney, C. A. (2019). Residual symptoms following prolonged exposure and present-centered therapy for PTSD in female veterans and soldiers. Depression and Anxiety, 36(2), 162–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoorl, M., Putman, P., & Van Der Does, W. (2013). Attentional bias modification in posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1159/000341920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shamai-Leshem, D., Lazarov, A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2021). A randomized controlled trial of gaze-contingent music reward therapy for major depressive disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 38(2), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1002/DA.23089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, K. H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., … Dunbar, G. C. (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(Suppl. 20), 22–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Sipos, M. L., Bar-Haim, Y., Abend, R., Adler, A. B., & Bliese, P. D. (2014). Postdeployment threat-related attention bias interacts with combat exposure to account for PTSD and anxiety symptoms in soldiers. Depression and Anxiety, 31(2), 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, I. W., Hübscher, M., Moseley, G. L., Lee, H., Wand, B. M., Traeger, A. C., … McAuley, J. H. (2018). The reliability of eyetracking to assess attentional bias to threatening words in healthy individuals. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 1778–1792. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0946-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staugaard, S. R. (2009). Reliability of two versions of the dot-probe task using photographic faces. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51(3), 339–350.Google Scholar
Suslow, T., Hußlack, A., Kersting, A., & Bodenschatz, C. M. (2020). Attentional biases to emotional information in clinical depression: A systematic and meta-analytic review of eye tracking findings. Journal of Affective Disorders, 274, 632–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, C. L., Goegan, L. D., Newman, K. R., Arndt, J. E., & Sears, C. R. (2013). Attention to threat images in individuals with clinical and subthreshold symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(5), 447–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.05.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veerapa, E., Grandgenevre, P., El Fayoumi, M., Vinnac, B., Haelewyn, O., Szaffarczyk, S., … D'Hondt, F. (2020). Attentional bias towards negative stimuli in healthy individuals and the effects of trait anxiety. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 11826. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-68490-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014). Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38(3), 313–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waechter, S., & Stolz, J. A. (2015). Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and attentional bias to threat: Assessing the psychometric properties of response time measures. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(4), 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9670-z.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weathers, F. W., Keane, T. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2001). Clinician-administered PTSD scale: A review of the first ten years of research. Depression and Anxiety, 13(3), 132–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.1029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weierich, M. R., Treat, T. A., & Hollingworth, A. (2008). Theories and measurement of visual attentional processing in anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 22(6), 985–1018. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701597601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wermes, R., Lincoln, T. M., & Helbig-Lang, S. (2017). How well can we measure visual attention? Psychometric properties of manual response times and first fixation latencies in a visual search paradigm. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(4), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9830-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Veerapa et al. supplementary material

Veerapa et al. supplementary material
Download Veerapa et al. supplementary material(File)
File 42 KB