Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-t6hkb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-10T14:07:52.607Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Depression and pain: primary data and meta-analysis among 237 952 people across 47 low- and middle-income countries

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2017

B. Stubbs ,
D. Vancampfort ,
N. Veronese ,
T. Thompson ,
M. Fornaro ,
P. Schofield ,
M. Solmi ,
J. Mugisha ,
A. F. Carvalho  and
A. Koyanagi
B. Stubbs*
Affiliation:
Physiotherapy Department, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AZ, UK Health Service and Population Research Department, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London, Box SE5 8AF, UK
D. Vancampfort
Affiliation:
KU Leuven, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Leuven, Belgium KU Leuven, University Psychiatric Center KU Leuven, Leuven-Kortenberg, Belgium
N. Veronese
Affiliation:
Geriatrics Division, Department of Medicine-DIMED, University of Padova, Padova, Italy Institute of clinical Research and Education in Medicine (IREM), Padova, Italy
T. Thompson
Affiliation:
Faculty of Education and Health, University of Greenwich, London, UK
M. Fornaro
Affiliation:
New York Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
P. Schofield
Affiliation:
Faculty of Health, Social Care and Education, Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
M. Solmi
Affiliation:
Institute of clinical Research and Education in Medicine (IREM), Padova, Italy Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
J. Mugisha
Affiliation:
Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda Butabika National Referral and Mental Health Hospital, Kampala, Uganda
A. F. Carvalho
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical Medicine and Translational Psychiatry Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
A. Koyanagi
Affiliation:
Research and Development Unit, Parc Sanitari Sant Joan de Déu, Universitat de Barcelona, Fundació Sant Joan de Déu, Dr. Antoni Pujadas, 42, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona 08830, Spain Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Monforte de Lemos 3-5 Pabellón 11, Madrid 28029, Spain
*
*Address for correspondence: B. Stubbs, Physiotherapy Department, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, Denmark Hill, London, UK. (Email: brendon.stubbs@kcl.ac.uk)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Depression and pain are leading causes of global disability. However, there is a paucity of multinational population data assessing the association between depression and pain, particularly among low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where both are common. Therefore, we investigated this association across 47 LMICs.

Methods

Community-based data on 273 952 individuals from 47 LMICs were analysed. Multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses were performed to assess the association between the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision depression/depression subtypes (over the past 12 months) and pain in the previous 30 days based on self-reported data. Country-wide meta-analysis adjusting for age and sex was also conducted.

Results

The prevalence of severe pain was 8.0, 28.2, 20.2, and 34.0% for no depression, subsyndromal depression, brief depressive episode, and depressive episode, respectively. Logistic regression adjusted for socio-demographic variables, anxiety and chronic medical conditions (arthritis, diabetes, angina, asthma) demonstrated that compared with no depression, subsyndromal depression, brief depressive episode, and depressive episode were associated with a 2.16 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.83–2.55], 1.45 (95% CI 1.22–1.73), and 2.11 (95% CI 1.87–2.39) increase in odds of severe pain, respectively. Similar results were obtained when a continuous pain scale was used as the outcome. Depression was significantly associated with severe pain in 44/47 countries with a pooled odds ratio of 3.93 (95% CI 3.54–4.37).

Conclusion

Depression and severe pain are highly comorbid across LMICs, independent of anxiety and chronic medical conditions. Whether depression treatment or pain management in patients with comorbid pain and depression leads to better clinical outcome is an area for future research.

Keywords

Comorbiditydepressiondepressive symptomspain
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 47 , Issue 16 , December 2017 , pp. 2906 - 2917
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Andreasen, P, Lonnroos, E, von Euler-Chelpin, MC (2014). Prevalence of depression among older adults with dementia living in low- and middle-income countries: a cross-sectional study. European Journal of Public Health 24, 40–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asante, A, Price, J, Hayen, A, Jan, S, Wiseman, V (2016). Equity in health care financing in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review of evidence from studies using benefit and financing incidence analyses. PLoS ONE 11, e0152866.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayuso-Mateos, JL, Nuevo, R, Verdes, E, Naidoo, N, Chatterji, S (2010). From depressive symptoms to depressive disorders: the relevance of thresholds. British Journal of Psychiatry 196, 365–371.Google Scholar
Bai, Y-M, Chiou, W-F, Su, T-P, Li, C-T, Chen, M-H (2014). Pro-inflammatory cytokine associated with somatic and pain symptoms in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 155, 28–34.Google Scholar
Bair, MJ, Robinson, RL, Katon, W, Kroenke, K (2003). Depression and pain comorbidity: a literature review. Archives of Internal Medicine 163, 2433–2445.Google Scholar
Breivik, H, Collett, B, Ventafridda, V, Cohen, R, Gallacher, D (2006). Survey of chronic pain in Europe: prevalence, impact on daily life, and treatment. European Journal of Pain 10, 287–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breivik, H, Eisenberg, E, O'Brien, T (2013). The individual and societal burden of chronic pain in Europe: the case for strategic prioritisation and action to improve knowledge and availability of appropriate care. BMC Public Health 13, 1–28.Google Scholar
De Hert, M, Cohen, D, Bobes, J, Cetkovich-Bakmas, M, Leucht, S, Ndetei, DM, Newcomer, JW, Uwakwe, R, Asai, I, Möller, H-J, Gautam, S, Detraux, J, Correll, CU (2011 a). Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. II. Barriers to care, monitoring and treatment guidelines, plus recommendations at the system and individual level. World Psychiatry 10, 138–151.Google Scholar
De Hert, M, Correll, CU, Bobes, J, Cetkovich-Bakmas, M, Cohen, DAN, Asai, I, Detraux, J, Gautam, S, Möller, HJ, Ndetei, DM (2011 b). Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care. World Psychiatry 10, 52–77.Google Scholar
Demyttenaere, K, Bruffaerts, R, Lee, S, Posada-Villa, J, Kovess, V, Angermeyer, MC, Levinson, D, de Girolamo, G, Nakane, H, Mneimneh, Z, Lara, C, de Graaf, R, Scott, KM, Gureje, O, Stein, DJ, Haro, JM, Bromet, EJ, Kessler, RC, Alonso, J, Von Korff, M (2007). Mental disorders among persons with chronic back or neck pain: results from the World Mental Health Surveys. Pain 129, 332–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrari, AJ, Charlson, FJ, Norman, RE, Patten, SB, Freedman, G, Murray, CJ, Vos, T, Whiteford, HA (2013). Burden of depressive disorders by country, sex, age, and year: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010. PLoS Medicine 10, e1001547.Google Scholar
Fornaro, M, Clementi, N, Fornaro, P (2009). Medicine and psychiatry in Western culture: ancient Greek myths and modern prejudices. Annals of General Psychiatry 8, 21.Google Scholar
Fornaro, M, Maremmani, I, Canonico, PL, Carbonatto, P, Mencacci, C, Muscettola, G, Pani, L, Torta, R, Vampini, C, Parazzini, F, Dumitriu, A, Perugi, G (2011). Prevalence and diagnostic distribution of medically unexplained painful somatic symptoms across 571 major depressed outpatients. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 7, 217–221.Google Scholar
Guerra, M, Prina, AM, Ferri, CP, Acosta, D, Gallardo, S, Huang, Y, Jacob, KS, Jimenez-Velazquez, IZ, Llibre Rodriguez, JJ, Liu, Z, Salas, A, Sosa, AL, Williams, JD, Uwakwe, R, Prince, M (2016). A comparative cross-cultural study of the prevalence of late life depression in low and middle income countries. Journal of Affective Disorders 190, 362–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gureje, O, Von Korff, M, Kola, L, Demyttenaere, K, He, Y, Posada-Villa, J, Lepine, JP, Angermeyer, MC, Levinson, D, de Girolamo, G, Iwata, N, Karam, A, Guimaraes Borges, GL, de Graaf, R, Browne, MO, Stein, DJ, Haro, JM, Bromet, EJ, Kessler, RC, Alonso, J (2008). The relation between multiple pains and mental disorders: results from the World Mental Health Surveys. Pain 135, 82–91.Google Scholar
Hamer, M, Sabia, S, Batty, GD, Shipley, MJ, Tabák, AG, Singh-Manoux, A, Kivimaki, M (2012 a). Physical activity and inflammatory markers over 10 years: follow-up in men and women from the Whitehall II cohort study. Circulation 126, 928–933.Google Scholar
Hamer, M, Stamatakis, E, Steptoe, A (2014). Effects of substituting sedentary time with physical activity on metabolic risk. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 46, 1946–1950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamer, M, Venuraju, SM, Urbanova, L, Lahiri, A, Steptoe, A (2012 b). Physical activity, sedentary time, and pericardial fat in healthy older adults. Obesity 20, 2113–2117.Google Scholar
Henningsen, P, Zimmermann, T, Sattel, H (2003). Medically unexplained physical symptoms, anxiety, and depression: a meta-analytic review. Psychosomatic Medicine 65, 528–533.Google Scholar
Hooten, WM (2016). Chronic pain and mental health disorders: shared neural mechanisms, epidemiology, and treatment. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 91, 955–970.Google Scholar
Jackson, T, Thomas, S, Stabile, V, Han, X, Shotwell, M, McQueen, K (2015). Prevalence of chronic pain in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 385 (Suppl. 2), S10.Google Scholar
Jackson, T, Thomas, S, Stabile, V, Han, X, Shotwell, M, McQueen, KA (2016). Chronic pain without clear etiology in low- and middle-income countries: a narrative review. Anesthesia & Analgesia 122, 2028–2039.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Ustun, TB (2004). The World Mental Health (WMH) Survey initiative version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13, 93–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koyanagi, A, Oh, H, Stickley, A, Haro, JM, DeVylder, J (2016). Risk and functional significance of psychotic experiences among individuals with depression in 44 low- and middle-income countries. Psychological Medicine 46, 2655–2665.Google Scholar
Koyanagi, A, Stickley, A (2015). The association between psychosis and severe pain in community-dwelling adults: findings from 44 low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Psychiatric Research 69, 19–26.Google Scholar
Mogil, JS (2012). Sex differences in pain and pain inhibition: multiple explanations of a controversial phenomenon. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13, 859–866.Google Scholar
Moussavi, S, Chatterji, S, Verdes, E, Tandon, A, Patel, V, Ustun, B (2007). Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet 370, 851–858.Google Scholar
Mugisha, J, Ssebunnya, J, Kigozi, FN (2016). Towards understanding governance issues in integration of mental health into primary health care in Uganda. International Journal of Mental Health Systems 10, 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, CJL, Vos, T, Lozano, R, Naghavi, M, Flaxman, AD, Michaud, C, Ezzati, M, Shibuya, K, Salomon, JA, Abdalla, S, Aboyans, V, Abraham, J, Ackerman, I, Aggarwal, R, Ahn, SY, Ali, MK, Alvarado, M, Anderson, HR, Anderson, LM, Andrews, KG, Atkinson, C, Baddour, LM, Bahalim, AN, Barker-Collo, S, Barrero, LH, Bartels, DH, Basáñez, M-G, Baxter, A, Bell, ML, Benjamin, EJ, Bennett, D, Bernabé, E, Bhalla, K, Bhandari, B, Bikbov, B, Bin Abdulhak, A, Birbeck, G, Black, JA, Blencowe, H, Blore, JD, Blyth, F, Bolliger, I, Bonaventure, A, Boufous, S, Bourne, R, Boussinesq, M, Braithwaite, T, Brayne, C, Bridgett, L, Brooker, S, Brooks, P, Brugha, TS, Bryan-Hancock, C, Bucello, C, Buchbinder, R, Buckle, G, Budke, CM, Burch, M, Burney, P, Burstein, R, Calabria, B, Campbell, B, Canter, CE, Carabin, H, Carapetis, J, Carmona, L, Cella, C, Charlson, F, Chen, H, Cheng, AT-A, Chou, D, Chugh, SS, Coffeng, LE, Colan, SD, Colquhoun, S, Colson, KE, Condon, J, Connor, MD, Cooper, LT, Corriere, M, Cortinovis, M, de Vaccaro, KC, Couser, W, Cowie, BC, Criqui, MH, Cross, M, Dabhadkar, KC, Dahiya, M, Dahodwala, N, Damsere-Derry, J, Danaei, G, Davis, A, De Leo, D, Degenhardt, L, Dellavalle, R, Delossantos, A, Denenberg, J, Derrett, S, Des Jarlais, DC, Dharmaratne, SD, Dherani, M, Diaz-Torne, C, Dolk, H, Dorsey, ER, Driscoll, T, Duber, H, Ebel, B, Edmond, K, Elbaz, A, Ali, SE, Erskine, H, Erwin, PJ, Espindola, P, Ewoigbokhan, SE, Farzadfar, F, Feigin, V, Felson, DT, Ferrari, A, Ferri, CP, Fèvre, EM, Finucane, MM, Flaxman, S, Flood, L, Foreman, K, Forouzanfar, MH, Fowkes, FGR, Fransen, M, Freeman, MK, Gabbe, BJ, Gabriel, SE, Gakidou, E, Ganatra, HA, Garcia, B, Gaspari, F, Gillum, RF, Gmel, G, Gonzalez-Medina, D, Gosselin, R, Grainger, R, Grant, B, Groeger, J, Guillemin, F, Gunnell, D, Gupta, R, Haagsma, J, Hagan, H, Halasa, YA, Hall, W, Haring, D, Haro, JM, Harrison, JE, Havmoeller, R, Hay, RJ, Higashi, H, Hill, C, Hoen, B, Hoffman, H, Hotez, PJ, Hoy, D, Huang, JJ, Ibeanusi, SE, Jacobsen, KH, James, SL, Jarvis, D, Jasrasaria, R, Jayaraman, S, Johns, N, Jonas, JB, Karthikeyan, G, Kassebaum, N, Kawakami, N, Keren, A, Khoo, J-P, King, CH, Knowlton, LM, Kobusingye, O, Koranteng, A, Krishnamurthi, R, Laden, F, Lalloo, R, Laslett, LL, Lathlean, T, Leasher, JL, Lee, YY, Leigh, J, Levinson, D, Lim, SS, Limb, E, Lin, JK, Lipnick, M, Lipshultz, SE, Liu, W, Loane, M, Ohno, SL, Lyons, R, Mabweijano, J, MacIntyre, MF, Malekzadeh, R, Mallinger, L, Manivannan, S, Marcenes, W, March, L, Margolis, DJ, Marks, GB, Marks, R, Matsumori, A, Matzopoulos, R, Mayosi, BM, McAnulty, JH, McDermott, MM, McGill, N, McGrath, J, Medina-Mora, ME, Meltzer, M, Mensah, GA, Merriman, TR, Meyer, A-C, Miglioli, V, Miller, M, Miller, TR, Mitchell, PB, Mock, C, Mocumbi, AO, Moffitt, TE, Mokdad, AA, Monasta, L, Montico, M, Moradi-Lakeh, M, Moran, A, Morawska, L, Mori, R, Murdoch, ME, Mwaniki, MK, Naidoo, K, Nair, MN, Naldi, L, Narayan, KMV, Nelson, PK, Nelson, RG, Nevitt, MC, Newton, CR, Nolte, S, Norman, P, Norman, R, O'Donnell, M, O'Hanlon, S, Olives, C, Omer, SB, Ortblad, K, Osborne, R, Ozgediz, D, Page, A, Pahari, B, Pandian, JD, Rivero, AP, Patten, SB, Pearce, N, Padilla, RP, Perez-Ruiz, F, Perico, N, Pesudovs, K, Phillips, D, Phillips, MR, Pierce, K, Pion, S, Polanczyk, GV, Polinder, S, Pope, CA III, Popova, S, Porrini, E, Pourmalek, F, Prince, M, Pullan, RL, Ramaiah, KD, Ranganathan, D, Razavi, H, Regan, M, Rehm, JT, Rein, DB, Remuzzi, G, Richardson, K, Rivara, FP, Roberts, T, Robinson, C, De Leòn, FR, Ronfani, L, Room, R, Rosenfeld, LC, Rushton, L, Sacco, RL, Saha, S, Sampson, U, Sanchez-Riera, L, Sanman, E, Schwebel, DC, Scott, JG, Segui-Gomez, M, Shahraz, S, Shepard, DS, Shin, H, Shivakoti, R, Singh, D, Singh, GM, Singh, JA, Singleton, J, Sleet, DA, Sliwa, K, Smith, E, Smith, JL, Stapelberg, NJC, Steer, A, Steiner, T, Stolk, WA, Stovner, LJ, Sudfeld, C, Syed, S, Tamburlini, G, Tavakkoli, M, Taylor, HR, Taylor, JA, Taylor, WJ, Thomas, B, Thomson, WM, Thurston, GD, Tleyjeh, IM, Tonelli, M, Towbin, JA, Truelsen, T, Tsilimbaris, MK, Ubeda, C, Undurraga, EA, van der Werf, MJ, van Os, J, Vavilala, MS, Venketasubramanian, N, Wang, M, Wang, W, Watt, K, Weatherall, DJ, Weinstock, MA, Weintraub, R, Weisskopf, MG, Weissman, MM, White, RA, Whiteford, H, Wiebe, N, Wiersma, ST, Wilkinson, JD, Williams, HC, Williams, SRM, Witt, E, Wolfe, F, Woolf, AD, Wulf, S, Yeh, P-H, Zaidi, AKM, Zheng, Z-J, Zonies, D, Lopez, AD, AlMazroa, MA, Memish, ZA (2012). Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380, 2197–2223.Google Scholar
Nicholl, BI, Mackay, D, Cullen, B, Martin, DJ, Ul-Haq, Z, Mair, FS, Evans, J, McIntosh, AM, Gallagher, J, Roberts, B, Deary, IJ, Pell, JP, Smith, DJ (2014). Chronic multisite pain in major depression and bipolar disorder: cross-sectional study of 149,611 participants in UK Biobank. BMC Psychiatry 14, 350.Google Scholar
Nuevo, R, Chatterji, S, Verdes, E, Naidoo, N, Arango, C, Ayuso-Mateos, JL (2012). The continuum of psychotic symptoms in the general population: a cross-national study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 475–485.Google Scholar
Nuevo, R, Van Os, J, Arango, C, Chatterji, S, Ayuso-Mateos, JL (2013). Evidence for the early clinical relevance of hallucinatory-delusional states in the general population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 127, 482–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paller, CJ, Campbell, CM, Edwards, RR, Dobs, AS (2009). Sex-based differences in pain perception and treatment. Pain Medicine 10, 289–299.Google Scholar
Pan, YJ, Pan, CH, Chan, HY, Kuo, KH (2015). Depression and pain: an appraisal of cost effectiveness and cost utility of antidepressants. Journal of Psychiatric Research 63, 123–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prina, AM, Ferri, CP, Guerra, M, Brayne, C, Prince, M (2011). Co-occurrence of anxiety and depression amongst older adults in low- and middle-income countries: findings from the 10/66 study. Psychological Medicine 41, 2047–2056.Google Scholar
Rayner, L, Hotopf, M, Petkova, H, Matcham, F, Simpson, A, McCracken, LM (2016). Depression in patients with chronic pain attending a specialised pain treatment centre: prevalence and impact on health care costs. Pain 157, 1472–1479.Google Scholar
Rose, GA (1962). The diagnosis of ischaemic heart pain and intermittent claudication in field surveys. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 27, 645–658.Google Scholar
Salagre, E, Fernandes, BS, Dodd, S, Brownstein, DJ, Berk, M (2016). Statins for the treatment of depression: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Journal of Affective Disorders 200, 235–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuch, FB, Deslandes, AC, Stubbs, B, Gosmann, NP, Silva, CT, Fleck, MP (2016 a). Neurobiological effects of exercise on major depressive disorder: a systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 61, 1–11.Google Scholar
Schuch, FB, Vancampfort, D, Richards, J, Rosenbaum, S, Ward, PB, Stubbs, B (2016 b). Exercise as a treatment for depression: a meta-analysis adjusting for publication bias. Journal of Psychiatric Research 77, 42–51.Google Scholar
Strawbridge, R, Arnone, D, Danese, A, Papadopoulos, A, Herane Vives, A, Cleare, AJ (2015). Inflammation and clinical response to treatment in depression: a meta-analysis. European Neuropsychopharmacology 25, 1532–1543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stubbs, B (2016). The prevalence and odds of suicidal thoughts, behaviours and deaths among people with painful comorbidities: an updated meta-analysis accounting for publication bias. Journal of Psychiatric Research 72, 72–73.Google Scholar
Stubbs, B, Patchay, S, Soundy, A, Schofield, P (2014). The avoidance of activities due to fear of falling contributes to sedentary behavior among community-dwelling older adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain: a multisite observational study. Pain Medicine 15, 1861–1871.Google Scholar
Stubbs, B, Thompson, T, Acaster, S, Vancampfort, D, Gaughran, F, Correll, CU (2015). Decreased pain sensitivity among people with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of experimental pain induction studies. Pain 156, 2121–2131.Google Scholar
Stubbs, B, Thompson, T, Solmi, M, Vancampfort, D, Sergi, G, Luchini, C, Veronese, N (2016). Is pain sensitivity altered in people with Alzheimer's disease? A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental pain research. Experimental Gerontology 82, 30–38.Google Scholar
Tsang, A, Von Korff, M, Lee, S, Alonso, J, Karam, E, Angermeyer, MC, Borges, GL, Bromet, EJ, Demytteneare, K, de Girolamo, G, de Graaf, R, Gureje, O, Lepine, JP, Haro, JM, Levinson, D, Oakley Browne, MA, Posada-Villa, J, Seedat, S, Watanabe, M (2008). Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety disorders. Journal of Pain 9, 883–891.Google Scholar
Uthman, OA, van der Windt, DA, Jordan, JL, Dziedzic, KS, Healey, EL, Peat, GM, Foster, NE (2013). Exercise for lower limb osteoarthritis: systematic review incorporating trial sequential analysis and network meta-analysis. BMJ 347, f5555.Google Scholar
Vancampfort, D, Stubbs, B, Sienaert, P, Wyckaert, S, De Hert, M, Rosenbaum, S, Probst, M (2015). What are the factors that influence physical activity participation in individuals with depression? A review of physical activity correlates from 59 studies. Psychiatria Danubina 27, 210–224.Google Scholar
Webster, LR, Brennan, MJ, Kwong, LM, Levandowski, R, Gudin, JA (2016). Opioid abuse-deterrent strategies: role of clinicians in acute pain management. Postgraduate Medicine 128, 76–84.Google Scholar
Wong, KO, Hunter Rowe, B, Douwes, J, Senthilselvan, A (2013). Asthma and wheezing are associated with depression and anxiety in adults: an analysis from 54 countries. Pulmonary Medicine 2013, 929028.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization (1993). The ICD–10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research.Google Scholar