The author wishes to thank Northwestern College for a summer research grant in 1991 that enabled the completion of this article.

1. Pacific, April 11, 1907, 7.

2. On Anglo-Protestantism and the progressivist impulse, see, among other works, Griffen, Clyde, “The Progressive Ethos,” in The Development of an American Culture, ed. Coben, Stanley and Ratner, Lorman (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), 120-49Google Scholar; White, Ronald C. Jr., and Hopkins, C. Howard, The Social Gospel: Religion and Reform in Changing America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Burnham, John C., “Progressivism,” in Buenker, John D., Burnham, John C., and Crunden, Robert M., Progressivism (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1977), 3–29 Google Scholar; Boyer, Paul, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978)Google Scholar; Szasz, Ferenc Morton, The Divided Mind of Protestant America, 1880-1930 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Crunden, Robert M., Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1982)Google Scholar; Smith, Gary Scott, “The Men and Religion Forward Movement of 1911-1912: New Perspectives on Evangelical Social Concern and the Relationship between Christianity and Progressivism,” Westminster Theological Journal 49, no. 1 (1987): 91–118 Google Scholar; and Evensen, Bruce J., “The Evangelical Origins of the Muckrakers,” American Journalism 6 (1989): 5–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

3. Atkins, Gaius Glenn, Religion in Our Times (New York: Round Table Press, 1932)Google Scholar, chap. 8, is a classic account of the crusading ethos of the era's Anglo- Protestantism.

4. The “canopy” metaphor is from Marty, Martin E., Modern American Religion, vol. 1: The Irony of It All, 1893-1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986)Google Scholar, chap. 9. Helpful works on Anglo-American Protestantism include Marty, Martin E., Righteous Empire: The Protestant Experience in America (New York: Dial, 1970)Google Scholar; May, Henry F., “The Religion of the Republic,” in Ideas, Faiths, and Feelings: Essays on American Intelletual and Religious History, 1952-1982 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 163-86Google Scholar; Handy, Robert T., A Christian America: Protestant Hopes and Historical Realities, 2d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; and Ernst, Eldon G., Without Help or Hindrance: Religious Identity in American Culture, 2d ed. (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987).Google ScholarPubMed

5. May, Henry F., The End of American Innocence: A Study of the First Years of Our Own Time, 1912-1917 (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1959; repr., 1964), 9–19 Google Scholar; May, “The Religion of the Republic”; and Meyer, D. H., The Instructed Conscience: The Shaping of the American National Ethic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, provide excellent background on the sources and character of Anglo-Protestant moralism and practical idealism. For the concept of “moral custodianship,” see Wacker, Grant, “Uneasy in Zion: Evangelicals in Postmodern Society,” in Evangelicalism and Modern America, ed. Marsden, George (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), 22–24.Google Scholar On a “Christian America,” see especially Handy, A Christian America.

6. Mowry, George E., The California Progressives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951 Google Scholar; repr., Chicago: Quadrangle, Books, 1963); and Olin, Spencer C. Jr., Californias Prodigal Sons: Hiram Johnson and the Progressives, 1911-1917 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968)Google Scholar, are the Standard works on California progressivism. See also, among others, Bean, Walton, Boss Ruef's San Francisco: The Story of the Union Labor Party, Big Business, and the Graft Prosecution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952)Google Scholar; Walsh, James P., “Abe Ruef Was No Boss: Machine Politics, Reform, and San Francisco,” California Historical Quarterly 51, no. 1 (1972): 3–16 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bean, Walton, “Ideas of Reform in California,” California Historical Quarterly 51, no. 3 (1972): 213-26CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hennings, Robert E., James D. Phelan and the Wilson Progressives of California (New York: Garland, 1985)Google Scholar; and Kazin, Michael, “The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940,” Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar A notable exception to the lack of attention to the relation of religion to progressivism in California is Ostrander, Gilman, The Prohibition Movement in California, 1848-1933 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1957).Google Scholar

7. Only a handful of published works, thus far, have critically studied aspects of California religion with an eye to larger historiographical issues. These works include: Singleton, Gregory H., Religion in the City of Angels: American Protestant Culture and Urbanization, Los Angeles, 1850-1930 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1979)Google Scholar; Frankiel, Sandra Sizer, California's Spiritual Frontiers: Religious Alternatives in Anglo-Protestantism, 1850-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988)Google Scholar; and Engh, Michael E., Frontier Faiths: Church, Temple, and Synagogue in Los Angeles, 1846-1888 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992)Google Scholar. For a seminal overview of the religious historiography of the Far West, see Ernst, Eldon G., “American Religious History from a Pacific Coast Perspective,” in Religion and Society in the American West: Historical Essays, ed. Guarneri, Carl and Alvarez, David (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987), 3–39.Google Scholar In addition, see Frankiel, Sandra Sizer, “California and the Southwest,” in Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience: Studies of Traditions and Movements, 3 vols., ed. Lippy, Charles H. and Williams, Peter W. (New York: Scribner's, 1988), 3:1509-23Google Scholar; Anderson, Douglas Firth, “San Francisco Evangelicalism, Regional Religious Identity, and the Revivalism of D. L. Moody,” Fides et Historia 15, no. 2 (1983): 44–66 Google Scholar; Anderson, Douglas Firth, “ ‘We Have Here a Different Civilization’: Protestant Identity in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1906-1909,” Western Historical Quarterly 23 (1992): 199–221 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Anderson, Douglas Firth, “Modernization and Theological Conservatism in the Far West: The Controversy over Thomas F. Day, 1907-1912,” Fides et Historia 24, no. 2 (1992): 76–90.Google Scholar

8. Stegner, Wallace, “California Rising,” in Unknown California, ed. Eisen, Jonathan and Fine, David with Eisen, Kim (New York: Macmillan, 1985), 8 Google Scholar. The concept of cultural region is receiving renewed attention in the fields of both Western and American religious history. On American regionalism in general, see the bibliographic article by Clarence Mondale, “Concepts and Trends in Regional Studies, ” American Studies International 27 (April 1989): 13-37. On region and the West, see Steiner, Michael C., “The Significance of Turner's Sectional Thesis,” Western Historical Quarterly 10, no. 4 (1979): 437-66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jensen, Richard, “On Modernizing Frederick Jackson Turner: The Historiography of Regionalism,” Western Historical Quarterly 11, no. 3 (1980): 307-22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Malone, Michael P., “Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History,” Western Historical Quarterly 20, no. 4 (1989): 409-27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar On American religion and region, see Wentz, Richard E., “Region and Religion in America,” Foundations 24, no. 2 (1981): 148-56Google Scholar; Brauer, Jerald C., “Regionalism and Religion in America,” Church History 54, no. 3 (1985): 366-78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Gaustad, Edwin S., “Regionalism in American Religion,” in Religion in the South, ed. Wilson, Charles Reagan (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985), 155-87.Google Scholar

9. The Standard account of the graft prosecution is Bean, Boss Ruef's San Francisco; this article relies heavily on Bean. Other important analyses include Mowry, , The California Progressives, 23–38 Google Scholar; Walsh, , “Abe Ruef Was No Boss”; McGloin, John Bernard, San Francisco: The Story of a City (San Rafael, Calif.: Presidio, 1978), 267-77Google Scholar; Issel, William and Cherny, Robert W., San Francisco, 1865-1932: Politics, Power, and Urban Development (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 155-58Google Scholar; and Kazin, Michael, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 128-39, 181-84.Google Scholar

10. On William Rader, see General Council, Congregational and Christian Churches, Year-Book ofthe Congregational and Christian Churches, 1930:66-67; Bufford, Charles M., A Hundred Years of Congregationalism in San Francisco, 1849-1949 (mimeograph, San Francisco, 1949), 18.Google Scholar On Calvary Presbyterian Church, see Willard, Ruth Hendricks and Wilson, Carol Green, Sacred Places of San Francisco, photo. Roy Flamm (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1985), 80–81.Google Scholar

11. On Bay area Anglo-Protestant clergy, see Douglas Firth Anderson, “Through Fire and Fair by the Golden Gate: Progressive Era Protestantism and Regional Culture” (Ph.D. diss., Graduate Theological Union, 1988), 1006-7, 1047-1107; on regional denominational strength, see ibid., table 3.

12. Starr, Kevin, Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 68 Google Scholar; Rischin, Moses, “Immigration, Migration, and Minorities in California: A Reassessment,” Pacific Historical Review 41, no. 1 (1972): 71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

13. Issel, and Cherny, , San Francisco, 1865-1932, 14, 55–56 Google Scholar; Burchell, R. A., The San Francisco Irish, 1848-1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 2–12.Google Scholar The words of the Monitor are in Burchell, The San Francisco Irish, 4.

14. Barth, Gunther, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Lotchin, Roger W., San Francisco, 1846-1856: Front Hamlet to City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).Google Scholar

15. Anderson, “San Francisco Evangelicalism.”

16. Anderson, “ ‘We Have Here a Different Civilization, ’ ” 208. The 1906 U.S. Religious Census, when compared with denominational sources, seems to reflect pre-earthquake numbers. On the reliability and usefulness of the U.S. Religious Censuses, see Christiano, Kevin J., Religious Diversity and Social Change: American Cities, 1890-1906 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

17. Pacific Churchman, September 15, 1905, 3; see Pacific, May 21, 1908, 3, for a reprint of Drury's report; Pacific Presbyterian, September 19, 1912, 7.

18. Moore, R. Laurence, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986)Google Scholar, uses the concept of religious “outsiderhood” in a stimulating way.

19. On Anglo-Protestants and the San Francisco earthquake and fire, see Anderson, “Through Fire and Fair,” chap. 3; on the region's recovery from the disaster, see Douty, Christoper Morris, The Economics of Localized Disasters: The 1906 San Francisco Catastrophe (New York: Arno Press, 1977).Google Scholar

20. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 241-43Google Scholar; Daniels, Roger, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962; College ed., New York: Atheneum, 1970), 1–37.Google Scholar

21. Kazin, “The Great Exception Revisited”; and Kazin, Barons of Labor.

22. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 1–19 Google Scholar; Walsh, “Abe Ruef Was No Boss”; Tygiel, Jules, “ ‘Where Unionism Holds Undisputed Sway’: A Reappraisal of San Francisco's Union Labor Party,” California History 62, no. 3 (1983): 196–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See Rosenbaum, Fred, Architects of Reform: Congregational and Community Leadership—Emanu-El of San Francisco, 1849-1980 (Berkeley: Western Jewish History Center, 1980), 61–63 Google Scholar, on Ruef and the local Jewish Community.

23. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 20–21.Google Scholar

24. Tygiel, “ ‘Wnere Unionism Holds Undisputed Sway’ ”; Kazin, , Barons of Labor, 113-44.Google Scholar

25. Walsh, “Abe Ruef Was No Boss.”

26. Older, Fremont, Growing Up (San Francisco: San Francisco Call-Bulletin, 1931).Google Scholar Older was raised in a Congregationalist home. He rejected, though, what he understood as the conventionally orthodox “God of hate” and, influenced to some extent by Unitarians, believed in a “God of love” (55). He apparently did not affiliate with any religious institution as an adult. His Anglo-Protestant background, however, is the obvious source of his moralism.

27. On Phelan, see Hennings, James D. Phelan; Issel and Cherny, San Francisco, 1865-1932, 32, 35-36, 109-10, 143-54; Kahn, Judd, Imperial San Francisco: Politics and Planning in an American City, 1897-1906 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979)Google Scholar; and Scott, Mel, The San Francisco Bay Area: A Metropolis in Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959), 95–122.Google Scholar

28. Bean, Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 40-77; and Older, Fremont, My Own Story, 2d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1926)Google Scholar. For Burns's religious affiliation, see Who Was Who, 1897-1942, vol. 1, 1942 ed., s.v. “Burns, William John.”

29. McCormick, Richard L., “The Discovery that Business Corrupts Politics: A Reappraisal of the Origins of Progressivism,” American Historical Review 86, no. 2 (1981): 247-74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haskell, Thomas L., The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association and the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 1–47 Google Scholar; Crunden, , Ministers of Reform, 3–15, 274-78Google Scholar; Burnham, “Progressivism”; Evensen, “The Evangelical Origins of the Muckrakers” Szasz, Ferenc M., “The Stress on ‘Character and Service’ in Progressive America,” Mid-America 63, no. 3 (1981): 145-56.Google Scholar

30. Pacific, October 25, 1906, 3; Pacific Churchman, November 15, 1906, 3-4.

31. Pacific, February 1, 1906, 6; Bulletin, December 2, 1906, 22; December 5, 1906, 6; January 23, 1907, 6; January 25, 1907, 6. Later, P. C. Macfarlane described Rader in a Collier's article as “the preaching vigilante.” According to Macfarlane, Rader also wrote some of the unsigned Bulletin editorials on behalf of the prosecutions in late 1906 and early 1907. See Macfarlane, Peter Clark, “William Rader: The Preaching Vigilante,” Collier's 50 (October 12, 1912): 21–22, 26.Google Scholar F. D. Bovard, the editor of the San Francisco-based Methodist weekly California Christian Advocate, pooh-poohed Macfarlane's account as a “monstrous hoax.” See California Christian Advocate, October 24, 1912, 4. But Macfarlane himself had been in the San Francisco Bay area from 1902 to 1908 as the pastor of the Alameda Christian (Disciples of Christ) Church. As was editor Bovard, Macfarlane was an outspoken supporter of the graft prosecutions at the time. (On P. C. Macfarlane, see Who Was Who, 1897-1942, vol. 1, 1942 ed., s.v. “Macfarlane, Peter Clark”; and Franklin Hichborn, “The System” as Uncovered by the San Francisco Graft Prosecution (San Francisco: Press of James H. Barry Company, 1915), 69 n. 73). Why Macfarlane would have known something about Rader's activities that Bovard did not is not immediately clear. On the other hand, Rader himself apparently did not deny Macfarlane's account. Since the other basic facts in the article are reliable, and since Rader was writing signed columns for Older during the period, it is possible, but not certain, that he also wrote unsigned pieces.

32. Bulletin, January 23, 1907, 6.

33. Pacific, April 4, 1907, 2-3; Pacific Baptist, May 2, 1907, 2; San Francisco Call, June 17, 1907, n.p., clipping in George C. Adams, Scrapbooks, 1886-1910, vol. 3, Pacific School of Religion Archives, Berkeley, California.

34. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 229-30, 256-67.Google Scholar On E. R. Taylor's loose Anglo-Protestant ties, see Walsh, “Abe Ruef Was No Boss,” 12-13; and George E. Burlingame, “San Francisco: A Challenge to Evangelical Christianity,” repr. from Chicago Standard, December 26, 1908, and January 2, 1909, in San Francisco Hamilton Square Baptist Church, Scrapbooks, 1902-1922, vol. 1, American Baptist Seminary of the West Archives, Berkeley, California.

35. California Christian Advocate, July 25, 1907, 4; Pacific, July 18, 1907, 5; Kazin, Barons of Labor, 128-39.

36. See a form letter from the San Francisco Civic Betterment League, dated May 31, 1907, listing its officers and goals, and a leaflet for an August 9, 1907, mass meeting, both in Adams, Scrapbooks, vol. 3.

37. Pacific Churchman, September 1, 1907, 8; Hichborn, “The System” 383 n. 420.

38. California Christian Advocate, October 17, 1907, 5; “The Welcome,” November 3, 1907, bulletin in Hamilton Square Baptist Church, Scrapbooks, vol. 1.

39. California Christian Advocate, November 21, 1907, 5; Pacific Churchman, December 1, 1907, 5; Pacific, November 21, 1907, 5.

40. Evaluating a statistical study of Anglo-Protestant denominations in the Bay area in 1915, Presbyterian Hugh W. Gilchrist, principal of the San Francisco Bible College, gloomily concluded that only in Berkeley was church growth keeping pace with population growth. “Berkeley is not a test of the virility and propagating power of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. San Francisco is the test.” Gilchrist, Hugh W., A Survey of Evangelical Churches in San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley and Alameda (San Francisco: published by the author, [1916?])Google Scholar, pamphlet in the Pacific School of Religion Archives. See also tables 5-9 in Anderson, “Through Fire and Fair.”

41. Pacific Churchman, October 15, 1907, 11.

42. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 258-60.Google Scholar

43. Ibid., 91-96, 256-63, 290-91; [Michael D. Lampen, comp.], Grace Cathedral Guidebook (San Francisco: Grace Cathedral, 1980), 3.

44. Pacific Churchman, October 1, 1907, 12; November 1, 1907, 13.

45. Hichborn, “The System,” 325-26; Pacific Churchman, July 1, 1908, 9-10; see also June 1, 1908, 9. On the resignation of D. J. Evans, see Hichborn, “The System,” 383 n. 420.

46. Pacific, April 2, 1908, 3; Pacific Baptist, May 28, 1908, 2, 10, 12; San Francisco Baptist Association, Minutes, 1908, 11; Pacific Presbyterian, June 11, 1908, 2; California Christian Advocate, July 23, 1908, 3.

47. For discussions of the rising Opposition to the graft trials in 1908-1909, see Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 274, 278, 283, 289-90, 293-95Google Scholar; Hichborn, , “The System,” 251-68Google Scholar; Brusher, Joseph, Consecrated Thunderbolt: Father Yorke of San Francisco (Hawthorne, N.J.: Joseph F. Wagner, 1973), 110-36Google Scholar; Rosenbaum, , Architects of Reform, 61–64 Google Scholar; Kazin, , Barons of Labor, 131-36.Google Scholar

48. Hichborn, “The System,” 375 n. 413; Liberator, December 12, 1908, 2; October 30, 1909, 1; Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 279, 292-93.Google Scholar On C. N. Lathrop, see Who Was Who, 1897-1942, vol. 1, 1942 ed., s.v. “Lathrop, Charles Newton.”

49. Hichborn, , “The System,” 375-79, 381-83Google Scholar; Macfarlane, “The Preaching Vigilante of San Francisco,” 22, 26; Pacific Baptist, November 26, 1908, 10; undated typescript in Berkeley Friends Monthly Meeting, Monthly Meeting Records, 1901-1908, in Berkeley Friends Church Archives; “To the People of Berkeley,” leaflet on November 19, 1908, meeting, in Berkeley Politics, pamphlet boxes, Bancroft Library; Liberator, December 19, 1908, 2.

50. Pacific Churchman, December 1, 1908, 8; California Christian Advocate, November 26, 1908, 2.

51. Bean, , Boss Ruef's San Francisco, 287-88, 296-99Google Scholar; Kazin, , Barons of Labor, 181-84.Google Scholar

52. San Francisco Chronicle, August 9, 1909, clipping of Sawyer evening sermon in Hamilton Square Baptist Church, Scrapbooks, vol. 1, 113; California Christian Advocate, October 21, 1909, 6.

53. On the Portolá Festival, see Scott, , San Francisco Bay Area, 122 Google Scholar; and Issel, and Cherny, , San Francisco, 1865-1932, 39–40.Google Scholar

54. California Christian Advocate, October 28, 1909, 6; Pacific Baptist, October 28, 1909, 16-17.

55. Pacific Presbyterian, November 4, 1909, 3; Liberator, October 30, 1909, 1.

56. Pacific Presbyterian, November 4, 1909, 7; November 11, 1909, 2-3; January 27, 1910, 6-7; Pacific Baptist, November 11, 1909, 5.

57. On Bay area Anglo-Protestantism from 1910 to 1917, see Anderson, “Through Fire and Fair,” chaps. 6-8.

58. Atkins, , Religion in Our Times, 157.Google Scholar

59. Wiebe, Robert H., The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967)Google Scholar; Hays, Samuel P., The Response to Industrialism, 1885-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957)Google Scholar; Hays, Samuel P., “The New Organizational Society,” in American Political History as Social Analysis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980), 244-63Google Scholar; Lears, T. J. Jackson, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981)Google Scholar; Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science; and the works cited in note 2.

60. Dale E. Soden, “In Quest of a ‘City on a Hill’: Seattle Minister Mark Matthews and the Moral Leadership of the Middle Class,” in Religion and Society in the American West, ed. Guarneri and Alvarez, 355-73; Singleton, Religion in the City of Angels.

61. On the cultural disestablishment of Anglo-Protestantism after 1920, see Handy, A Christian America; Marsden, George M., “From Fundamentalism to Evangelicalism: A Historical Analysis,” in The Evangelicals: What They Believe, Who They Are, Where They Are Changing, ed. Wells, David F. and Woodbridge, John D. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1975), 122-42Google Scholar; Hutchison, William R., ed., Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America, 1900-1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989)Google Scholar; and Lotz, David W., ed., Altered Landscapes: Christianity in America, 1935-1985 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989)Google Scholar, esp. Leonard I. Sweet, “The Modernization of Protestant Religion in America,” 19-41.