* I wish to express my appreciation to Professor A. Brady of the University of Toronto, Professor M. A. Fitzsimons of the University of Notre Dame, and Mr. W. Pickles of the London School of Economics and Political Science for having read the manuscript, at different stages, and having given me the benefit of several valuable suggestions.

¹ Russell, Bertrand, Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism (London, 1918), p. 49.Google Scholar

² Kropotkin, P., “Anarchism,” Encyclopaedia Britannica (1947), I, 873.Google Scholar

³ Jászi, O., “Anarchism,” Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (1942), II, 46.Google Scholar

⁴ Zenker, E. V., Anarchism: A Criticism and History of the Anarchist Theory (London, 1898), p. 4.Google Scholar

⁵ See Eltzbacher, P., Anarchism (New York, London, 1908)Google Scholar, especially chaps. X, XI, and the Conclusion. Cf. below, the two paragraphs after the next.

⁶ Jászi, , loc. cit.Google Scholar

⁷ Zenker, , op. cit., p. 7.Google Scholar

⁸ Kulczycki, Ludwik, Soucasny anarchismus (Contemporary Anarchism), p. 15Google Scholar. This book was originally published in Polish in 1902, and a Russian translation of it appeared in 1907. The above quotation is from the Czech edition, published in Prague in 1910, which the author specially prepared by revising and supplementing some part of the book.

⁹ Read, Herbert, Poetry and Anarchism (London, 1938), p. 78.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Eltzbacher, , op. cit., pp. 276, 292.Google Scholar

¹¹ Wakeman, John, Anarchism and Democracy (London, 1920), p. 10.Google Scholar

¹² This laxity of group discipline and regard for the freedom of the individual members were not fully preserved during the First World War when several leading anarchists, including Kropotkin, Grave and Cornelissen, supported the Allies. These anarchists were considered by the rest to have contravened the basic anarchist attitude of opposition to any war, and thus caused a split on what were deemed matters of principle. After the war, however, the breach was gradually healed.

During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, the anarchist ideas of the freedom of the individual were not always put into practice as one might have expected from anarchists, and the fighting raised many questions which a revolutionist striving to realize an ideal by force must face. On the other hand, the behavior of the anarchists in the Civil War in Spain brought them admiration and praise from people otherwise alien to the anarchist ideas, for example, from George Orwell in his Homage to Catalonia (London, 1938)Google Scholar.

In France there is an anarchist group, until recently, centered around Le Libertaire, which has begun to question and reject the idea of complete freedom of the individual member within a group, and to demand a certain degree of organizational responsibility and discipline.

¹³ See, for instance, Parsons, A. R. and others, Anarchism: Its Philosophy and Scientific Basis (Chicago, 1887)Google Scholar; Hamon, A., Psychologie de l'anarchistesocialiste (Paris, 1893)Google Scholar; Les hommes et Us théories de l'anarchie (Paris, 1895)Google Scholar; Goldman, E., Anarchism and other Essays (New York, 1911)Google Scholar; Berkman, A., The ABC of Anarchist Communism (London, 1942)Google Scholar; Rocker, R., Anarcho-Syndicalism (London, 1938)Google Scholar; Malatestas, E., Anarchy, 8th ed. (London, 1949).Google Scholar

¹⁴ See especially his Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (London, 1902)Google Scholar and Ethics: Origin and Development (New York, 1924).Google Scholar

¹⁵ This was done in a very general way by Zenker, , op. cit.Google Scholar, chap. I, and by Vizetelly, E. A., The Anarchists: Their Faith and their Record (London, 1911)Google Scholar, chap. I. Kropotkin went into greater detail in “Anarchism,” Ency. Brit. (1947), I, 873–877Google Scholar, and in a series of articles, “L'Anarchie,” Les Temps Nouveaux, 01 21st to 04 29th, 1911Google Scholar. The most comprehensive treatment so far undertaken appears in the first eight chapters (66 pp.) of Nettlau, Max's Der Vorfrühling der Anarchie: ihre historische Entwicklung von den Anfdngen bis zum Jahre 1864 (Berlin, 1925)Google Scholar. Jaszi, 's “Anarchism,” Ency. Soc. Sc. (1942), II, 46–53Google Scholar, relies heavily on this work.

¹⁶ My purpose in this section is to give a general outline of these ideas and to supplement the accounts givens in the works cited in the previous note both by greater synthesis and by new observations.

¹⁷ This aspect of Greek thought, however, does not appear to be discussed in the many books devoted to Greek philosophy.

¹⁸ Plato, , The Republic, I, 338 ff.Google Scholar

¹⁹ On Zeno see Pearson, A. C., The Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes (London, 1891)Google Scholar; Wellman, E., Die Phitosophie des Stoikers Zenon (Leipzig, 1874)Google Scholar; Weygold, G. P.: Die Philosophie der Stoa nach ihren Wesen und ihren Schicksalen (Leipzig, 1883), especially pp. 21–85.Google Scholar

²⁰ Vizetelly, , op. cit., pp. 4–6Google Scholar, for instance, claims that anarchist theories were advocated during Wat Tyler's rebellion in 1381, in particular by John Ball, known as the “mad priest of Kent.” Charles Oman's definitive work, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Oxford, 1906)Google Scholar, however, hardly substantiates these claims.

²¹ Nettlau, , op. cit., chaps. IV–VI.Google Scholar

²² Kropotkin, , The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793, trans, from the French by Dryhurst, N. F. (London, 1909), chap. XLI and pp. 4, 346–347, 350–351.Google Scholar

²³ Brunot, F., Histoire de la langue française des origines à 1900 (Paris, 1927), IX, deuxième partie, 827–828.Google Scholar

²⁴ For a general treatment of the theory and practice of the various sects and groups discussed in the text, reference should be made to Ernst Troeltsch's classic, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, trans, by Wyon, Olive, with an Introd. Note by Charles Gore, 2 vols. (London, New York, 1931)Google Scholar. Apart from the many books devoted to the individual sects, one may also consult for a more detailed discussion The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge, 12 vols. (New York and London, 1908–1910)Google Scholar and Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 12 vols. and Index vol. (Edinburgh, 1908–1926).Google Scholar

²⁵ Palacky, František, Dějiny národu ceského v Čechách a na Moravě dle puvodních pramenu (History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia and Moravia according to the Original Sources), ed. by Kálal, Karel (Prague, 1931, 1934), III, 252–254; IV, 237.Google Scholar

²⁶ For detailed and sympathetic accounts of the Anabaptists and the Quakers two books may be mentioned: Smithson, B. J., The Anabaptists: Their Contribution to Our Protestant Heritage, with Foreword by Professor Archibald Main (London, 1935)Google Scholar, and Lloyd, Arnold, Quaker Social History, 1669–1738, with Introd. by Wood, Herbert A. (London, New York, Toronto, 1950), especially chap. VI.Google Scholar

²⁷ The study of communistic elements among religious sects has attracted several socialist writers and forms parts of such books as Kautsky, Karl, Die Vorläufer des Neueren Sozialismus (Stuttgart, 1895)Google Scholar; Communism in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation, trans, by , J. L. and Mulliken, E. G. (London, 1897)Google Scholar; Adler, Georg, Geschichte des Sozialismus und Kommunismus von Plato bis zur Gegenwart, vol. I: Bis zur Französischen Revolution (Leipzig, 1899)Google Scholar; Bernstein, Eduard, Cromwell and Communism: Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution, trans, by Stenning, H. J. (London, 1930)Google Scholar. For a brief account by a non-socialist, see Jarrett, B., Mediaeval Socialism (London, 1913)Google Scholar. Perhaps a similar study, paying more attention to anarchist elements, will be undertaken before long.

²⁸ Troeltsch, , op cit., II, 713.Google Scholar

²⁹ Palacky, , op cit., III, 245–246, 258–260.Google Scholar

³⁰ See Brown, Louise Fargo, The Political Activities of the Baptists and Fifth Monarchy Men in England during the Interregnum (Washington, London, Oxford, 1912), especially pp. 12–13, 23–25, 117.Google Scholar

³¹ A contemporary tract, The Downfall of the Fifth Monarchy Men. Or, The personal Reign of Christ on Earth, confuted (London, 1657)Google Scholar, states that their ideas belong to those “stratagems and devices which the Devil hath to delude people” (p. 2), for “it's the Devils [sic] doctrine to preach down government and governours, it's his work to pull down Ministers and Ministry: yea, it is the Devils [sic] main design to root out of the world both Ministry and Magistracy, and all other Schools of Learning, good education and knowledge …” (pp. 9–10).

³² Sít víry (The Net of Faith) was probably written between 1440 and 1443, and first printed in 1521. It was reprinted in 1912 by the “Comenium” in Prague under the editorship of Emil Smetanka. The gist of Chelcicky's arguments is in Part I, particularly pp. 69–118, of this edition.

One of the copies preserved from 1521 has a long title page beginning with the words, Sít víry pravé (The Net of True Faith), and consequently the book is also known under this title.

³³ In The Kingdom of God Is within You, trans, by Garrett, Constance, 2 vols. (London, 1894), I, 27 and 29Google Scholar, Tolstoy writes: “It is a marvellous book from every point of view … it is one of the most remarkable products of thought for its depth of aim, for the astounding beauty of the national language in which it is written, and for its antiquity.”

³⁴ Consider, for instance, the claims about anarchist traits in the Digger movement in England (Nettlau, , op cit., pp. 52–55Google Scholar), or about the relation of anarchism to the philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach (Jaszi, , op. cit., p. 48).Google Scholar

³⁵ Ovid's words in his Metamorphoseon, I, 89–93, readily come to mind:Google Scholar

“Aurea prima sata est aetas, quae vindice nullo,

Sponte sua, sine lege fidem rectumque colebat.

Poena metusque aberant, nee verba minacia fixo,

Aere legebantur, nee supplex turba timebat

Iudicis ora sui, sed erant sine vindice tuti.”

³⁶ For an analysis of Godwin's anarchism see Ramus, Pierre, William Godwin, der Theoretiker des Kommunistischen Anarchismus (Leipzig, 1907)Google Scholar, and Saitzeff, Helene, William Godwin und die Anfangen des Anarchismus im XVIII Jahrhundert. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des politischen Individualismus. (Berlin, 1907).Google Scholar

³⁷ See especially his Anarchist Communism: Its Basis and Principles (London, 1891)Google Scholar; Anarchist Morality (London, 1892)Google Scholar; Les Temps Nouveaux (Paris, 1894)Google Scholar; L'Anarchie, sa philosophie, son idéal (Paris, 1896)Google Scholar; The State: Its Historic Role (London, 1898)Google Scholar; Mutual Aid (London, 1902)Google Scholar; The Conquest of Bread (London, 1906)Google Scholar; Modern Science and Anarchism (London, 1912)Google Scholar; Communisme et anarchie (Paris, 1913)Google Scholar; Ethics (New York, 1924).Google Scholar

On the whole, the analysis of Kropotkin's political theories has been neglected, and I am now engaged on such a work. Among Russian sources two deserve special mention: Borovoi, A. and Lebeder, N. (eds.), Petr Kropotkin. Sbornik statei posvyashchennyi pamyati P. A . Kropotkin (Peter Kropotkin. A. Collection of Articles Dedicated to the Memory of P. A. Kropotkin) (Moscow, 1922)Google Scholar, and Maksimov, G. P. (ed.), P. A. Kropotkin i ego uchenie (P. A. Kropotkin and His Teachings) (Chicago, 1931)Google Scholar. There are two biographical studies: Planche, Fernand and Delphy, Jean, Kropotkine, Descendant des Grands Princes de Smolensk, Page de l'Empereur, Savant illustre, Révolutionnaire international, Vulgarisateur de la Pensée anarchiste (Paris, 1948)Google Scholar, and Woodcock, George and Avakumović, Ivan, The Anarchist Prince: A Biographical Study of Peter Kropotkin (London, 1950).Google Scholar

³⁸ For Proudhon, see his Que'est-ce que la propriété? (Paris, 1840)Google Scholar; Système des contradictions économiques ou philosophie de la misère (Paris, 1846)Google Scholar; La Solution du problème sociale (Paris, 1848)Google Scholar; L'Idáe générale de la Revolution au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1851)Google Scholar; De la Justice dans la Révolution et dans l'Eglise, 3 vols. (Paris, 1858)Google Scholar; Du principe fédératif (Paris, 1863).Google Scholar

On Proudhon consult Dolléans, Éduard, Proudhon (Paris, 1948)Google Scholar; Lubac, Henri de, The Un-Marxian Socialist: A Study of Proudhon, trans, by Scantlebury, R. E. (London, 1948)Google Scholar; Woodcock, George, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (London, 1956).Google Scholar

³⁹ Qu'est-ce que la propriété? (Paris, 1873 ed.), 212.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ On Bakunin consult his Oeuvres, 6 vols. (Paris, 1895–1913)Google Scholar; God and State, trans, by Tucker, Benjamin, Preface by Carlo Cafiero and Elisée Reclus (Boston, 1893)Google Scholar; La Commune de Paris et la notion de l'Etat (Paris, 1899)Google Scholar; Dragoraanov, M. (ed.), Michail Bakunins Socialpolitischer Briefwechsel mit Alexander Iw. Herzen und Ogarjow (Stuttgart, 1895)Google Scholar; Maksimov, G. P. (ed.), The Political Philosophy of Bakunin: Scientific Anarchism, Preface by Bert F. Hoselitz, Introd. by Rudolf Rocker, Biographical Sketch by Max Nettlau (Glencoe, Ill., 1953)Google Scholar; Pyziur, E., The Doctrine of Anarchism of Michael Bakunin (Milwaukee, Wis., 1955)Google Scholar; Carr, E. H., Michael Bakunin (London, 1937).Google Scholar

⁴¹ This congress was held on October 9th and 10th at Chaux-de-Fonds, and Kropotkin's address was published in Le Révolté, 10 17th, 1880.Google Scholar

⁴² On syndicalism see, for example, Rocker, R., Anarcho-Syndicalism (London, 1938)Google Scholar; Louis, P., Le Syndicalisme contre 'Etat (Paris, 1910)Google Scholar; Pataud, E. and Pouget, E., Syndicalism and Co-operative Commonwealth, Foreword by Tom Mann and Preface by Peter Kropotkin (Oxford, 1913).Google Scholar

⁴³ For example, Read, H., op. cit., p. 55Google Scholar; Woodcock, G., What Is Anarchism (London, 1945), p. 11.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ An English translation, entitled The Ego and His Own, by Steven T. Byington, was published in New York in 1907.

⁴⁵ Tucker's views appear in a selection of his articles, Instead of a Book, by a Man too Busy to Write One: A Fragmentary Exposition of Philosophical Anarchism (New York, 1893).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Out of the many books and pamphlets written by Tolstoy, for the basic statement of his philosophy see The Kingdom of God Is within You, referred to above, n. 33; What I Believe (My Religion) (London, n.d.); L'Église et l'Etat, trad, par J. W. Bienstock (Paris, 1905)Google Scholar; The Russian Revolution (London, 1907?).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See Bonch-Bruevich, V. D. (ed.), Materialy k istorii i izucheniu russkago sektanstva i raskola (Materials for the History and Teaching of Russian Sectarianism and Schism), vol. II: Zhivotnaya kniga dukhobortsev (A Fundamental Book of the Doukhobors) (St. Peterburg, 1909)Google Scholar; Tchertkoff, Vladimir (ed.), Christian Martyrdom in Russia: An Account of the Members of the Universal Brotherhood or Doukhobortsi now Migrating from the Caucasus to Canada, containing a Concluding Chapter and Letter by Leo Tolstoy, Introd. by James Mavor (Toronto, 1899)Google Scholar; Zubek, John Peter and Solberg, P. A., The Doukhobors at War (Toronto, 1952).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Rocker, , op. cit., p. 23.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ E.g., Stammler, R., Die Theorie des Anarchismus (Berlin, 1894)Google Scholar; Diehl, Karl, Über Sozialismus, Kommunismus und Anarchismus, 2d, enlarged ed. (Jena, 1911), especially p. 97Google Scholar; Zenker, , op. cit., p. 3.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Russell, , op. cit., p. 52.Google Scholar

⁵¹ The terroristic acts of the anarchists naturally attracted much attention. See, for example, Vizetelly, op. cit., or Félix Dubois, The Anarchist Peril, trans., ed. and enlarged with a supplementary chapter by Ralph Derecheff (London, 1894). For a more detailed discussion of this problem, see my article, “Anarchism and Individual Terrorism,” The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, XX (05, 1954), 176–184.Google Scholar

⁵² Kropotkin, , Paroles d'un révolté (Paris, 1885), p. 99.Google Scholar

⁵³ Hamon, , Psychologie de l'anarchiste-socialiste, pp. 271–272.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Ibid., 286–287. See also his “Les Anarchistes, sont-ils des socialistes?” Les Temps Nouveaux, 05 11th, 1895.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ The Place of Anarchism in Socialistic Evolution (London, 1887), p. 2.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ “Anarchism,” Ency. Brit., I, 873.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Apart from the works already cited, see, for example, Coker, Francis W., Recent Political Thought (New York, London, 1934)Google Scholar; Gray, A., The Socialist Tradition: Moses to Lenin (London, New York, Toronto, 1946)Google Scholar; Cole, G. D. H., A History of Socialist Thought, vol. II: Marxism and Anarchism, 1850–1890 (London, 1954)Google Scholar; Russell, B., op. cit. On p. 52Google Scholar Russell states that anarchism “has arisen mainly within the Socialist movement as its left wing.”

⁵⁸ See, for example, Kropotkin, , Modern Science and Anarchism; Les Temps Nouveaux; L'Anarchie; Anarchist Communism; The Place of Anarchism in Socialistic Evolution.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ This has been the case since the latter years of the last century in both the French and German Social Democratic Parties. In the latter this trend was typical not only of the “revisionist” Bernstein, but also of Kautsky who, especially from the time of his controversy with Lenin and Trotsky until his death, argued from a definite democratic-socialist position.

⁶⁰ This is particularly true of Kropotkin's Mutual Aid and Ethics. It could be shown that the views developed in them are to a considerable degree of the same nature as those which have provided the ethical background for some social policies of the modern welfare State. Mutual Aid, however, is only little known, and Ethics is practically unknown. A university student may attend several courses in sociology and ethics without ever hearing about them.