Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-k7p5g Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-13T06:48:33.890Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The epidemiology of age-related neurological disease and dementia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 November 2008

DWK Kay*
Affiliation:
MRC Neurochemical Pathology Unit, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
*
DWK Kay, 8 Grosvenor Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 2RE, UK.

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Psychiatry of old age
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Kay, DWK. The epidemiology of dementia: a review of recent work. Rev Clin Geront 1991; 1: 5566.Google Scholar
2 Calne, DB, Eisen, A. Parkinson's disease: motorneuron disease and Alzheimer's disease: origins and interrelationships. Adv Neurology 1990; 53: 355–60.Google Scholar
3 Cooper, B. The epidemiology of primary degenerative dementia and related neurological disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatr Clin Neurosci 1991; 240: 223–33.Google Scholar
4 Lobo, A, Dewey, ME, Copeland, JRM et al. The prevalence of dementia among elderly people living in Zaragoza and Liverpool. Psychol Med 1992; 22: 239–43.Google Scholar
5 Saunders, PA, Copeland, JRM, Dewey, ME et al. The prevalence of dementia, depression and neurosis in later life: the Liverpool MRC-ALPHA study. Int J Epidemiol 1993; 22: 838–47.Google Scholar
6 Fratiglioni, L, Grut, M, Forsell, Y et al. Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias in an elderly urban population: relationship with age, sex, and education. Neurology 1991; 41: 1886–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7 Breteler, MMB, van den Ouweland, FA, Grobbee, DE, Hofman, A. A community-based study of dementia: the Rotterdam elderly study. Neuroepidemiology 1992; 11 (suppl 1): 2328.Google Scholar
8 Engedal, K, Haugen, PK. The prevalence of dementia in a sample of elderly Norwegians. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8: 565–70.Google Scholar
9 Juva, K, Sulkava, R, Erkinjuntti, et al. Prevalence of dementia in the city of Helsinki. Acta Neurol Scand 1993; 87: 106–10.Google Scholar
10 Jagger, C, Clarke, M, Anderson, J, Battcock, T. Dementia in Melton Mowbray–a validation of earlier findings. Age Ageing 1992; 21: 205–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11 Heeren, TJ, Lagaay, AM, Hijmans, W, Rooymans, HGM. Prevalence of dementia in the ‘oldest old’ of a Dutch community. J Am Geriatr Soc 1991; 39: 755–59.Google Scholar
12 Bachman, MD, Wolf, PA, Linn, R et al. Prevalence of dementia and probable senile dementia of the Alzheimer type in the Framingham study. Neurology 1992; 42: 115–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13 Folstein, MF, Bassett, SS, Anthony, JC et al. Dementia: case ascertainment in a community survey. J Gerontol 1991; 46: M13238.Google Scholar
14 Aronson, MK, Ooi, WL, Deva, DL et al. Age-dependent incidence, prevalence, and mortality in the old old. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 989–92.Google Scholar
15 Skoog, I, Nilsson, L, Palmertz, B et al. A population-based study of dementia in 85-year-olds. New Engl J Med 1993; 328: 153–58.Google Scholar
16 Wernicke, TF, Reischies, FM. Prevalence of dementia in old age: clinical diagnoses in subjects aged 95 years and older. Neurology 1994; 44: 250–53.Google Scholar
17 Folstein, MF, Folstein, SE, McHugh, PR. ‘Minimental state’. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 1975; 12: 8998.Google Scholar
18 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, third edition, revised. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1987.Google Scholar
19 Roth, M, Huppert, FA, Tym, E, Mountjoy, CQ. CAMDEX; the Cambridge examination for mental disorders in the elderly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
20 Copeland, JRM, Dewey, ME, Griffiths-Jones, HM. Computerised psychiatric diagnostic system and case nomenclature for elderly subjects: GMS and AGECAT. Psychol Med 1986; 16: 8999.Google Scholar
21 Berg, L. Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR). Psychopharm Bull 1988; 24; 637–39.Google Scholar
22 Park, J, Ko, HJ, Park, YN, Jung, C-H. Dementia among the elderly in a rural Korean community. Prevalence and cause. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 164: 796801.Google Scholar
23 Copeland, JRM, Dewey, ME, Saunders, P. The epidemiology of dementia: GMS-AGECAT studies of prevalence and incidence, including studies in progress. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991; 240: 212–17.Google Scholar
24 Hofman, A, Rocca, WA, Brayne, C, Breteler, MMB et al. The prevalence of dementia in Europe: a collaborative study of 1980–1990 findings. Int J Epidemiol 1991; 20: 736–48 (for the EURODEM Prevalence Research Group).Google Scholar
25 Jorm, AF, Korten, AE, Henderson, AS. The prevalence of dementia: a quantitative integration of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987; 76: 465–79.Google Scholar
26 Ritchie, K, Kildea, D, Robine, J-M. The relationship between age and the prevalence of senile dementia: a meta-analysis of recent data. Int J Epidemiol 1992; 21: 763–69.Google Scholar
27 Burvill, PW. A critique of current criteria for early dementia in epidemiological studies. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8: 553–59.Google Scholar
28 Kay, DWK. Ageing and cognition: approaches to the diagnosis of dementia in the community. In: Robine, J-M, Mathers, CD, Bone, M, Romieu, I eds. Calculation of health expectancies: harmonization, consensus achieved and future prospectives. Montrouge: Colloque INSERM/John Libbey Eurotext Ltd, 1993: 5161.Google Scholar
29 Barberger-Gateau, P, Commenges, D, Gagnon, M et al. Instrumental activities of daily living as a screening tool for cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly community dwellers. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 1129–34.Google Scholar
30 Barberger-Gateau, P, Dartigues, J-F, Letenneur, L. Four instrumental activities of daily living score as a predictor of one-year incident dementia. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 457–63.Google Scholar
31 Laukkanen, P, Kauppinen, M, Era, P, Heikkinen, E. Factors related to coping with physical and instrumental activities of daily living among people born in 1904–1923. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8: 287–96.Google Scholar
32 Barberger-Gateau, P, Chaslerie, A, Dartigues, J-P et al. Health measures correlates in a French elderly community population: the PAQUID study. J Gerontol Soc Sci 1992; 47: S8895.Google Scholar
33 Meller, I, Fichter, M, Schreppel, H, Beck-Eichinger, M. Mental and somatic health and need for care in octo- and nonagenarians. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 242: 286–92.Google Scholar
34 Mutch, WJ, Strudwick, A, Roy, SK, Downie, AW. Parkinson's disease: disability, review, and management. Br Med J 1986; 293: 675–77.Google Scholar
35 O'Connor, DW, Pollitt, PA, Brook, CPB, Reiss, BB. A community survey of mental and physical infirmity in nonagenarians. Age Ageing 1989; 18: 411–14.Google Scholar
36 Ritchie, K, Jagger, C, Brayne, C, Letenneur, L. Life expectancy free of mental impairment: methods and preliminary calculations. In: Robine, J-M, Mathers, CD, Bone, M, Romieu, I eds. Calculation of health expectancies: harmonization, consensus achieved and future prospectives. Montrouge: Colloque INSERM/John Libbey Eurotext Ltd, 1993: 233–44.Google Scholar
37 Brewis, M, Poskanzer, CR, Miller, H. Neurological disease in an English city. Acta Neurol Scand 1966; 42 (suppl): 189.Google Scholar
38 Anderson, DW, Schoenberg, DG eds. Neuroepidemiology: a tribute to Bruce Schoenberg. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1991.Google Scholar
39 Cockerell, OC, Sander, JWAS, Shorvon, SD. Neuroepidemiology in the United Kingdom [Editorial]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 735–38.Google Scholar
40 Copeland, JRM, Davidson, IA, Dewey, ME et al. Alzheimer's disease, other dementias, depression and pseudo-dementia: prevalence, incidence and three-year outcome in Liverpool. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 161: 230–39.Google Scholar
41 Rocca, WA, Hofman, A, Brayne, C et al. Frequency and distribution of Alzheimer's disease in Europe: a collaborative study of 1980–1990 prevalence findings. Ann Neurol 1991; 30: 381–90 (for the EURODEM-Prevalence Research Group).Google Scholar
42 Rocca, WA, Hofman, A, Brayne, C et al. The prevalence of vascular dementia in Europe: facts and fragments from 1980–1990 studies. Ann Neurol 1991; 30: 817–24 (for the EURODEM-Prevalence Research Group).Google Scholar
43 Newens, AJ, Forster, DP, Kay, DWK et al. Clinically diagnosed presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type in the Northern Health Region: ascertainment, prevalence, incidence and survival. Psychol Med 1993; 23: 631–44.Google Scholar
44 Mutch, WJ, Dingwall-Fordyce, I, Downie, AW et al. Parkinson's disease in a Scottish city. Br Med J 1986; 292: 534–36.Google Scholar
45 Mogante, L, Rocca, WA, Di Rosa, AE et al. Prevalence of Parkinson's disease and other types of parkinsonism: a door-to-door survey in three Sicilian municipalities. Neurology 1992: 42: 1901–907.Google Scholar
46 Rosati, G, Pinna, L, Granieri, E et al. Studies on epidemiological, clinical and etiological aspects of ALS disease in Sardinia, Southern Italy. Acta Neurol Scand 1977; 55: 231–44.Google Scholar
47 Clark, ID, Opit, LJ. The prevalence of stroke in those at home and the need for care. J Pub Health Med 1994; 16: 9396.Google Scholar
48 Kokmen, E, Beard, M, Offord, KP, Kurland, LT. Prevalence of medically diagnosed dementia in a defined United States population: Rochester, Minnesota, 1 January 1975. Neurology 1989; 39: 773–75.Google Scholar
49 Marder, K, Leung, D, Tang, M et al. Are demented patients with Parkinson's disease accurately reflected in prevalence surveys? A survival analysis. Neurology 1991; 41: 1240–43.Google Scholar
50 Neary, D. Non-Alzheimer's disease forms of cerebral atrophy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 929–31.Google Scholar
51 The Lund and Manchester Groups. Clinical and neuropathological criteria for frontotemporal dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 416–18.Google Scholar
52 Hudson, AJ. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and its association with dementia, parkinsonism and other neurological disorders: a review. Brain 1981; 104: 217–47.Google Scholar
53 Xuereb, JH, Tomlinson, BE, Irving, D et al. Cortical and subcortical pathology in Parkinson's disease: relationship to parkinsonian dementia. In: Streiffler, MB, Korczyn, AD, Melamed, E, Youdim, MBH eds. Advances in neurology, Volume 53: Parkinson's disease: anatomy, pathology, and therapy. New York: Raven Press, 1990: 3540.Google Scholar
54 Brown, RG, Marsden, CD. How common is dementia in Parkinson's disease? Lancet 1984; ii: 1262–65.Google Scholar
55 Hofman, A, Schulte, W, Tanja, TA et al. History of dementia and Parkinson's disease in 1st-degree relatives of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1989; 39: 1589–92.Google Scholar
56 Biggins, CA, Boyd, JL, Harrop, FM et al. A controlled, longitudinal study of dementia in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 566–71.Google Scholar
57 Mayeux, R, Chen, J, Mirabello, E et al. An estimate of the incidence of dementia in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1990; 40: 1513–17.Google Scholar
58 Mayeux, R, Denaro, J, Hemenegildo, N et al. A population-based investigation of Parkinson's disease with and without dementia. Arch Neurol 1992; 49: 492–97.Google Scholar
59 Stern, Y, Marder, K, Tang, MX, Mayeux, R. Antecedent clinical features associated with dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 1690–92.Google Scholar
60 Ebmeier, KP, Calder, SA, Crawford, JR et al. Parkinson's disease in Aberdeen: survival after 3.5 years. Acta Neurol Scand 1989; 81: 294–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
61 Sorensen, PS, Boysen, G, Jensen, G, Schnohr, P. Prevalence of stroke in a district of Copenhagen. Acta Neurol Scand 1982; 66: 6881.Google Scholar
62 McKeith, IG, Perry, RH, Jabeen, S et al. Operational criteria for senile dementia of the Lewy body type (SDLT). Psychol Med 1992; 22: 911–22.Google Scholar
63 Gustafson, L. Clinical picture of frontal lobe degeneration of non-Alzheimer type. Dementia 1993; 4: 143–48.Google Scholar
64 Gregory, CA, Hodges, D. Dementia of frontal lobe type and the focal lobar atrophies. Int Rev Psychiatry 1993; 5: 397406.Google Scholar
65 Orrell, MW, Sahakian, BJ, Bergmann, K. Self-neglect and frontal lobe dysfunction. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 155: 101105.Google Scholar
66 Paykel, ES, Brayne, C, Huppert, FA et al. Incidence of dementia in a population older than 75 years in the United Kingdom. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 325–32.Google Scholar
67 Bachman, DL, Wolf, PSA, Linn, RT et al. Incidence of dementia and probable Alzheimer's disease in a general population: The Framingham Study. Neurology 1993; 43: 515–19.Google Scholar
68 Boothby, H, Blizard, R, Livingston, G, Mann, AH. The Gospel Oak study stage III: the incidence of dementia. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 8995.Google Scholar
69 Morgan, K, Lilley, JM, Arie, T et al. Incidence of dementia in a representative British sample. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 467–70.Google Scholar
70 Kokmen, E, Beard, CM, O'Brien, PC et al. Is the incidence of dementing illness changing? A 25-year time trend study in Rochester, Minnesota (1960–1984). Neurology 1993; 43: 1887–92.Google Scholar
71 Li, G, Shen, YC, Zhau, YW et al. A three-year follow up study of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand 191; 83: 99104.Google Scholar
72 Bickel, H, Cooper, B. Incidence and relative risk of dementia in an urban elderly population: findings of a prospective field study. Psychol Med 1994; 24: 179–92.Google Scholar
73 Hagnell, O, Essen-Muller, E, Lanke, J et al. The incidence of mental illness over a quarter of a century. The Lundby longitudinal study. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 1990: Table 92c.Google Scholar
74 Dartigues, J-F. Quoted in Breteler, MMB, Claus, JJ, van Duijn, CM et al. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease. Epidemiol Reviews 1992; 14: 5982.Google Scholar
75 Copeland, JRM. Quoted in Breteler, MMB, Claus, JJ, van Duijn, CM et al. Epidemiology of Alzheimer's disease. Epidemiol Reviews 1992; 14: 5982.Google Scholar
76 Hagnell, O, Ojesjo, L, Rorsman, B. Incidence of dementia in the Lundby study. Neuroepidemiology 1992; 11 (suppl 1): 6166.Google Scholar
77 Launer, LJ. Overview of incidence studies of dementia conducted in Europe. Neuroepidemiology 1992; 11 (suppl 1): 213.Google Scholar
78 Marttila, RL, Rinne, UK. Epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in Finland. Acta Neurol Scand 1976; 53: 81102.Google Scholar
79 Rajput, AH, Offord, KP, Beard, CM, Kurland, LT. A case–control study of smoking habits, dementia, and other illnesses in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1987; 37: 226–32.Google Scholar
80 Yoshida, S, Mulder, DW, Kurland, LT et al. Follow-up study on amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in Rochester, Minn., 1925 through 1984. Neuroepidemiology 1986; 5: 6170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81 Bamford, J, Sandercock, P, Dennis, M et al. A prospective study of acute cerebrovascular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project 1981–86. 1. Methodology, demography and incident cases of first-ever stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 1373–80.Google Scholar
82 Chandra, V, Kokmen, E, Whisnant, J. Epidemiology of dementia from cerebral infarction: a population-based study. Neurology 1987; 37 (suppl 1): 279–80.Google Scholar
83 Koller, W, O'Hara, R, Weiner, W et al. Relationship of aging to Parkinson's disease. In: Yahr, MD, Bergmann, KJ eds. Advances in neurology, Volume 45. New York: Raven Press, 1987: 317–21.Google Scholar
84 Aronson, MK, Ooi, WL, Morgenstern, H et al. Women, myocardial infarction, and dementia in the very old. Neurology 1990; 40: 1102–106.Google Scholar
85 Davis, PH, Hachinski, V. Epidemiology of cerebrovascular disease. In: Anderson, DW, Schoenberg, DG eds. Neuroepidemiology: A tribute to Bruce Schoenberg. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1991: 2753.Google Scholar
86 Ebmeier, KP, Calder, SA, Crawford, JR et al. Dementia in idiopathic Parkinson's disease: prevalence and relationship with symptoms and signs of Parkinsonism. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 6976.Google Scholar
87 Breteler, MMB, de Groot, RRM, van Romunde, LKJ, Hofman, A. Risk of dementia for patients with Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and severe head trauma: a register based follow-up study. Neurology 1993; 43: A172.Google Scholar
88 Growdon, JH, Corkin, S, Rosen, TJ. Distinctive aspects of cognitive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. In: Streiffler, MB, Korczyn, AD, Melamed, E, Youdim, MBH eds. Advances in neurology, Volume 53: Parkinson's disease: anatomy, pathology, and therapy. New York: Raven Press, 1990: 365–76.Google Scholar
89 Starkstein, SE, Robinson, RG. Dementia of depression in Parkinson's disease and stroke. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991; 179: 593601.Google Scholar
90 Langston, JW, Tetrud, JW. MPTP-induced Parkinsonism in humans: new insights into Parkinson's disease. In: Kennard, C ed. Recent advances in clinical neurology. London: Churchill Livingston, 1988: 153–73.Google Scholar
91 Bonita, R. Epidemiology of stroke. Lancet 1992; 339: 342–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92 Tatemichi, TK, Desmond, DW, Paik, M et al. Clinical determinants of dementia related to stroke. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 568–75.Google Scholar
93 Kase, CS. Epidemiology of multi-infarct dementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1991; 5: 7176.Google Scholar
94 Román, GC, Tatemichi, TK, Erkinjuntti, T et al. Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN international workshop. Neurology 1993; 43: 250–60.Google Scholar
95 Chui, HC, Victoroff, JI, Margolin, D et al. Criteria for the diagnosis of ischaemic vascular dementia proposed by the State of California Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Centers. Neurology 1992; 42: 473–80.Google Scholar
96 Drachman, DA. New criteria for the diagnosis of vascular dementia. Neurology 1993: 43: 243–45.Google Scholar
97 Hachinski, V. Vascular dementia: a radical redefinition. Dementia 1994; 5: 130–32.Google Scholar
98 Chancellor, AM, Warlow, CP. Adult onset motor neuron disease: worldwide mortality, incidence and distribution since 1950. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 1106–15.Google Scholar
99 Tanner, CM, Langston, JW. Do environmental toxins cause Parkinson's disease? A critical review. Neurology 1990; 40 (suppl 3): 1730.Google Scholar
100 Chancellor, AM, Slattery, JM, Fraser, H, Warlow, CP. Risk factors for motor neuron disease: a case–control study based on patients from the Scottish Motor Neuron Disease Register. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 1200–206.Google Scholar
101 Friedland, RP. Epidemiology, education, and the ecology of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 246–49.Google Scholar
102 Katzman, R. Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43: 1320.Google Scholar
103 Mortimer, JA, Graves, AB. Education and other socioeconomic determinants of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1993; 43 (suppl 4): S39–S44.Google Scholar
104 Boniauto, S, Rocca, WA, Lippi, A et al. Impact of education and occupation on the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multi-infarct dementia (MID) in Appignano, Macerata province, Italy [Abstract]. Neurology 1990; 40 (suppl 1): 346.Google Scholar
105 Hill, LR, Klauber, MR, Salmon, DP et al. Functional status, education, and the diagnosis of dementia in the Shanghai study. Neurology 1993; 43: 138–45.Google Scholar
106 Dartigues, J-F, Gagnon, M, Mazaux, JM et al. Occupation during life and memory performance in nondemented French elderly community residents. Neurology 1992; 42: 1697–701.Google Scholar
107 Beard, CM, Kokmen, E, Offord, KP, Kurland, LT. Lack of association between Alzheimer's disease and education, occupation, marital status, or living arrangement. Neurology 1992; 42: 2063–68.Google Scholar
108 Prince, M, Cullen, M, Mann, A. Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease and dementia: a case–control study based on the MRC elderly hypertension trial. Neurology 1994; 43: 97104.Google Scholar
109 O'Connor, DW, Pollitt, PA, Treasure, FP. The influence of education and social class on the diagnosis of dementia in a community population. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 219–24.Google Scholar
110 Popovitch, ER, Wisniewski, HM, Barcikowska, M et al. Alzheimer neuropathology in non-Down's syndrome mentally retarded adults. Acta Neuropathol 1990; 80: 362–67.Google Scholar
111 Jorm, AF, Henderson, AS, Scott, R et al. Does education protect against cognitive impairment? A comparison of the elderly in two Australian cities. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9: 357–63.Google Scholar
112 Baltes, PB, Sowarka, D, Kliegl, R. Cognitive training research on fluid intelligence in old age: what can older adults achieve by themselves? Psychol Aging 1989; 4: 217–21.Google Scholar
113 Christensen, H, Henderson, AS. Is age kinder to the initially more able? A study of eminent scientists and academics. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 935–46.Google Scholar
114 van Duijn, CM, Hofman, A. Risk factors of Alzheimer's disease: the EURODEM collaborative re-analysis of case–control studies. Neuroepidemiology 1992; 11 (suppl 1): 106–13.Google Scholar
115 van Duijn, CM, Clayton, D, Chandra, V et al. Familial aggregation of Alzheimer's disease and related disorders: a collaborative re-analysis of case–control studies. Int J Epidemiol 1991; 20 (suppl 2): S1320 (for the EURODEM Risk Factors Research Group).Google Scholar
116 Duvoisin, RC. The genetics of Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol 1993; 60: 306–15.Google Scholar
117 Williams, DB, Floate, DA, Leicester, J. Familial motor neuron disease: differing penetrance in large pedigrees. J Neurol Sci 1988; 86: 215–30.Google Scholar
118 Mendez, MF, Underwood, KL, Zander, BA et al. Risk factors in Alzheimer's disease: a clinico-pathologic study. Neurology 1992; 42: 770–75.Google Scholar
119 Roberts, GW, Gentleman, SM, Lynch, A et al. β-Amyloid protein deposition in the brain after severe head injury: implications for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 419–25.Google Scholar
120 Semchuk, KM, Love, EJ, Lee, RG. Parkinson's disease: a test of the multifactorial etiologic hypothesis. Neurology 1993; 43: 1173–80.Google Scholar
121 Harrington, CR, Wischik, CM, McArthur, FK et al. Alzheimer's-disease-like changes in tau protein processing: association with aluminium accumulation in brains of renal dialysis patients. Lancet 1994; 343: 993–97.Google Scholar
122 Doll, R. Alzheimer's disease and environmental aluminium [Review]. Age Ageing 1993; 22: 138–53.Google Scholar
123 Rifat, SL. Aluminium hypothesis lives. Lancet 1994; 343: 34.Google Scholar
124 Brenner, DE, Kukull, WA, van Belle, G et al. Relationship between cigarette smoking and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based case–control study. Neurology 1993; 43: 292300.Google Scholar
125 Breteler, MMB, Claus, JJ, Grobbee, DE, Hofman, A. Cardiovascular disease and the distribution of cognitive function in an elderly population: the Rotterdam study. Br Med J 1994; 308: 1604–608.Google Scholar
126 Breteler, MMB, Bots, ML, Mosterd, A et al. Atherogenic and hemostatic factors and cognitive function in the elderly. The Rotterdam Study. In: Breteler, MMB ed. Cognitive decline in the elderly. Epidemiological studies on cognitive function and dementia. Rotterdam: Erasmus University, 1993: 7485.Google Scholar
127 Breteler, MMB, Grobbee, DE, Hofman, A. Blood pressure, orthostatic hypotension, and cognitive function in the elderly. The Rotterdam study. Ann Neurol 1993; 34: A2601.Google Scholar
128 Breteler, MMB, van Swieten, JC, Bots, ML et al. Cerebral white matter lesions, vascular risk factors and cognitive function in a population-based study: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 1994; 44: 1246–52.Google Scholar
129 Crook, TH, Bartus, RT, Ferris, SH et al. Age- associated memory impairment: proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change–report of a National Institute of Mental Health Work Group. Dev Neuropsychol 1986; 2: 126–76.Google Scholar
130 Smith, G, Malec, JF, Petersen, RC et al. Age-Associated Memory Impairment diagnoses: problems of reliability and concerns for terminology. Psychol Aging 1991; 6: 551–58.Google Scholar
131 Barker, A, Jones, R. Age-associated memory impairment: diagnostic and treatment issues. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8: 305–10.Google Scholar
132 Larrabee, GJ, Crook, TH. Estimated prevalence of age-associated memory impairment derived from standardized tests of memory function. Int Psychogeriatr 1994; 6: 95104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
133 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.Google Scholar
134 World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1993.Google Scholar
135 Levy, R. Report: aging-associated cognitive decline. Working Party of IPA in collaboration with WHO. Int Psychogeriatr 1994; 6: 6368.Google Scholar
136 Bolla, KI, Lindgren, KM, Bonaccorsy, C, Bleecker, ML. Memory complaints in older adults. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 6164.Google Scholar
137 Christensen, H. The validity of memory complaints by elderly persons. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6: 307–12.Google Scholar
138 O'Connor, DW, Pollitt, PA, Roth, M et al. Memory complaints and impairment in normal, depressed and demented elderly people identified in a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47: 224–27.Google Scholar
139 Grut, M, Jorm, AF, Fratiglioni, L et al. Memory complaints of elderly people in a population survey: variation according to dementia stage and depression. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 12951300.Google Scholar
140 O'Brien, JT, Beats, B, Hill, K et al. Do subjective memory complaints precede dementia? A three-year follow up of patients with supposed ‘benign senescent forgetfulness’. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1992; 7: 481–86.Google Scholar
141 Flicker, C, Ferris, SH, Reisberg, B. A longitudinal study of cognitive function in elderly persons with subjective memory complaints. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 1029–32.Google Scholar
142 Fuhrer, R, Antonucci, TC, Gagnon, M et al. Depressive symptomatology and cognitive functioning: an epidemiological survey in an elderly community sample in France. Psychol Med 1992; 22: 159–72.Google Scholar
143 McGlone, J, Gupta, S, Humphrey, D et al. Screening for early dementia using memory complaints from patients and relatives. Arch Neurol 1990; 46: 1189–93.Google Scholar
144 Henderson, AS. Co-occurrence of affective and cognitive symptoms: the epidemiological evidence. Dementia 1990; 1: 119–23.Google Scholar
145 Brayne, C. Clinicopathological studies of the dementias from an epidemiological viewpoint. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 439–46.Google Scholar
146 Ritchie, K, Ledesert, B, Touchon, J. The Eugeria study of cognitive ageing: who are the ‘normal’ elderly? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994 (in press).Google Scholar