1 I thank Karen Brooks, Georgii Cherniavskii, David L. Cooper, Caryl Emerson, Donald Fanger, Richard Flathman, Sean Greenberg, Diane Koenker, Jean Laves, Anne Eakin Moss, Ken Moss, Lary May, Inessa Medzhibovskaya, Liz Papazian, Scott Shane, Elena Smilianskaia, William Mills Todd III, and my anonymous reviewers for comments, and also my student Patryk Babiracki. The Kennan Institute and the Woodrow Wilson Center provided support in 1999–2000. The essay stems from the conference on “Shaping Memory, Shaping Identity in Russian History” honoring Terence Emmons at Stanford University in 2003. Given the scope of the topic, I can barely touch the vast secondary literatures and must ignore some secondary themes. Dal', Vladimir, Poslovitsy russkogo naroda: Sbornik V. Dalia v dvukh tomakh (Moscow, 1984), 2:277–79.Google Scholar The Russian word used is volia.

2 See Kivelson, Valerie, “Bitter Slavery and Pious Servitude: Freedom and Its Critics in Muscovite Russia,“ Forschungenzur osteuropaischen Geschichte58 (2001): 109–19Google Scholar for a survey of the literature. See also Hellie, Richard, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (Chicago, 1982);Google Scholar Poe, Marshall, “ A People Born to Slavery“: Russia in Early Modern European Ethnography, 1476-1748 (Ithaca, 2000);Google Scholar Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel, The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering (New York, 1995).Google Scholar

3 Blum, Jerome, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1961), 611.Google Scholar

4 Brisson, L., “Plato's Mythology and Philosophy,” in Bonnefoy, Yves, compiler, Mythologies, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1991), 1:352.Google Scholar

5 Cited in Bonnefoy, Yves, “Preface to the French Edition,” in Mythologies, 1 :xxv.Google Scholar

6 Lozanova, A. N., Narodnye pesni o Slepane Razine (Nizhne-Volga, 1929), 13, 51–52;Google Scholar on female robbers see Aristov, N., Ob istoricheskom znachenii russkikh razboinich'ikh pesen (Voronezh, 1875), 111–12.Google Scholar

7 Aristov, Ob istoricheskom znachenii, 19.

8 Ibid., 14, 19, 51–52.

9 A copy of the picture can be found in Dzhivelegov, A. K., Mel'gunov, S. P., and Picheta, V. I., eds., Velikaia reforma: Russkoe obshchestvo i krest'ianskii vopros v proshlom i nastoiashchem, 6 vols. (Moscow, 1911), 2:48–49.Google Scholar Sud Pugacheva dates from 1875. An undated sketch, also in the Tret'iakov Gallery, shows Pugachev more fully as a bandit.

10 Dzhivelegov, Mel'gunov, and Picheta, Velikaia reforma, 2, 51, 53.

11 Aristov, Ob istoricheskom znachenii, 94, 108-9.

12 Ibid., 99.

13 Ibid., 100.

14 Ibid., 127.

15 Ibid., 149–51.

16 Ibid., 94.

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19 On their familiarity with popular fiction, see Brooks, Jeffrey, When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861–1917 (Evanston, 2003 [1985]), 85–87, 322, 337–40.Google Scholar

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21 See for example Hosking, Geoffrey, Russia and the Russians: A History (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 22.Google Scholar Like many clichés this has an element of truth. It has also been challenged. See Zorkaia's, N. M. classic study of literature and film, Na rubezhe stoletii (Moscow, 1976).Google Scholar See also Swift, E. Anthony, Popular Theater and Society in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley, 2002);Google Scholar McReynolds, Louise, Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End of the Tsarist Era (Ithaca, 2003);Google Scholar Savushkina, N. I., Russkaia narodnaia drama: Khudozhestvennoe svoeobrazie (Moscow, 1988);Google Scholar and Nekrylova, A. F. and Savushkina, N. I., Fol'klornyi teatr (Moscow, 1988).Google Scholar

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24 Fedotov, George P., The Russian Religious Mind, vol. 1, Kievan Christianity: The 10th to the 13lh Centuries (Belmont, Mass., 1975), 99.Google Scholar See also 94-157.

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27 Ibid., 73.

28 Brokgauz, F. A. and Efron, I. A., eds., Entsiklopedicheskii slovar', 43 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1890–1907; reprint Moscow, 1991)Google Scholar, s.w. “Volia v sfere grazhdanskogo prava,” “Volia v sfere ugolovnago prava,” “Svoboda (lat. Libertas),” “Svoboda voli,” “Svoboda mysli, slova,” “Svoboda politicheskaia,” “Svoboda torgovli.“

29 Zelnik, A Radical Worker, 19.

30 Pushkin, Alexander, The History of Pugachev, trans. Sampson, Earl (Ann Arbor, 1983), 106.Google Scholar Pushkin's Dubrovskii fits this mold and Onegin has been compared to such heroes, as Aleksandr Etkind points out in Tolkovanie puleshestvii: Rossiia i Amerika v Iravelogakli i intertekstakh (Moscow, 2001), 48-50.

31 Nekrasov, N. A., Sochineniia v trekh tomax, ed. Chukovskii, K. I. (Moscow, 1953–54), 3:191–93.Google Scholar I thank Elena Smilianskaia for pointing this out to me. Songs of this type appeared in scholarly compilations and popular songbooks such as Trubin, V., Noveishii polnyi russkii pesennik Ermak (Moscow, 1903).Google Scholar See also Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read, 174–77.

32 Dostoevsky, F. M., The Diary of a Writer, trans, and annotated, Brasol, Boris (New York, 1954), 588–92.Google Scholar

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35 Ibid., 547.

36 Ibid., 551.

37 Belknap, Robert L., The Genesis of the Brothers Karamazov: The Aesthetics, Ideology, and Psychology of Text Making (Evanston, 1990), 65.Google Scholar

38 Schiller, Friedrich, The Robbers, trans. Macdonald, Robert David (London, 1995), 131.Google Scholar

39 Dostoevsky, Diary of a Writer, 786. On redemption in Orthodoxy, see Frank, Joseph, Dostoevsky: The Stir of Liberation, 1860-1865 (Princeton, 1986), 148.Google Scholar Dostoevsky damned European reformers who blamed society, not the criminal.

40 Dostoevsky, Diary of A Writer, 787.

41 Pyr'ev, Ivan, director, Brat'ia Karamazovy (Moscow: Mosfil'm, 1968–1969).Google Scholar

42 Pyr'ev, Ivan, director, Bogataia nevesta (Kiev: Ukrainfil'm, 1937);Google Scholar Pyr'ev, Ivan, director, Partiinyi bilet (Moscow: Mosfil'm, 1936);Google Scholar Zarkhi, Aleksandr, director, Anna Karenina (Moscow: Mosfil'm, 1967);Google Scholar Lev Kulidzhanov, director, Prestuplmie i nakazanie (Moscow: Kinostudiia imeni A. M. Gor'kogo, 1970).

43 Brooks, Wtien Russia Learned to Read, 214–45.

44 Vera Tolz stresses the popular view of the alien quality of the non-Russian regions and Siberia. Tolz, Vera, Russia: Inventing the Nation (London, 2001), 177–81.Google Scholar

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46 Pastukhov, Razboinik Churkin, 177, 878.

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57 Quoted in ibid., 151.

58 Translated in Mochulsky, Dostoevsky, 165.

59 Ibid., 165–66.

60 Raskatov, Na avanpostakh, (Petrograd, n.d. [after 1910]), 85.

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77 This corresponds to Bakhtin's notion of adventure time.

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81 Before the October revolution Anna Karenina was separately published twice in 1878, and then in the eight editions of Tolstoi's ten-volume set of collected works (1880–1910). I thank William Mills Todd III for pointing this out to me.

82 William Mills Todd III translated the response of Prince Vladimir Mikhailovich Golitsyn to the different parts of the novel. Golitsyn, who detested Anna's depravity, preferred the first and last installments, that is, the ball and Anna's death. William Mills Todd III, “Reading Anna in Parts,” Tolstoi Studies Journal 8 (1995–1996), 125–28. See also Mandelker, Framing Anna Karenina, 49-51, on Anna's “heroinism.“

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98 Dostoevskii, PSS, 7:309.

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