Although the concept of the “modern” presidency is not precisely defined in presidential studies, most scholars agree that a plebiscitary approach to executive leadership has dominated the American political landscape for much of the past century. The characteristics of this “plebiscitary presidency” include aggressive assertions of executive independence, direct appeals to the people, active manipulation of public opinion, and, binding all these together, a new emphasis on rhetorical prowess.Samuel Kernell, Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1997); Jeffrey Tulis, The Rhetorical Presidency (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987); Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985); Richard Rose, The Post-Modern President (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers, 1988); Ryan J. Barilleaux, The Post-Modern Presidency: The Office After Reagan (New York: Praeger, 1988). These characteristics are associated with enhanced resources for the exercise of leadership, but they stimulate, and sit in an uncertain balance with, a vast expansion of expectations for leadership.