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Healthcare and Catholic Enlightenment in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 June 2022

Stanisław Witecki
Stanisław Witecki*
Affiliation:
Jagiellonian University
*
*Institute of History, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gołębia 13, 31-007 Kraków. E-mail: stanislaw.witecki@uj.edu.pl.
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Abstract

In the eighteenth century, the ideal of the priest in society was reformed by Polish and Lithuanian Catholic bishops. Instrumental in these reforms were Ignacy Massalski (1726–94), bishop of Vilnius (1762–94) and Michał Poniatowski (1736–94), bishop of Płock (1773–85), then archbishop of Gniezno (1785–94), and simultaneously administrator of the diocese of Kraków (1782–90). Their programmes included making clergy responsible for medical education and the organization of healthcare, and seeking to reform customs which were viewed as detrimental to health. The article draws on pastoral letters, popular educational books and administrative decrees to ascertain what ideas reformers imposed on the clergy. Episcopal visitation protocols, sermons and parish school textbooks are analysed to verify the effects of reforms and ascertain what was taught about health in the parishes. The examination of the relatively rare egodocuments of priests sheds light on how they experienced their afflictions. The article concludes that healthcare was an important topic for Catholic enlighteners in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and that priests played a significant role in promoting it. Reforms were driven by humanitarian and physiocratic principles, and were facilitated by an optimistic belief in the benefits of medicine. Nonetheless, many enlightened programmes failed because priests were unwilling or unable to implement changes that interfered with lived religion.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Church History , Volume 58: THE CHURCH IN SICKNESS AND IN HEALTH , June 2022 , pp. 150 - 172
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Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Ecclesiastical History Society

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Footnotes

The research is founded by the National Science Centre, Poland, under the project PRELUDIUM 16, no 2018/31/N/HS3/02079.

References

1 Poniatowski, Michał, Zalecenie względem niektórych okoliczności ochrony zdrowia ludu roboczego w czasie letnim [Recommendation on Certain Circumstances of the Protection of the Health of Workers during Summer] (Warsaw, 1785)Google Scholar.

2 Witecki, Stanisław, Przekaz kulturowy w parafiach katolickich na obszarze Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów czasów stanisławowskich [Cultural Transmission in Catholic Parishes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Stanislavian Period] (Kraków, 2018), 58–83Google Scholar, 127–95.

3 This article uses the term ‘lived religion’ as an alternative to the older concept of ’popular religion’.

4 Guenter B. Risse, ‘Medicine in the Age of Enlightenment’, in Andrew Wear, ed., History of Medicine in Society: Historical Essays (Cambridge, 1992), 149–96; Jonathan Andrews, ‘History of Medicine: Health, Medicine and Disease in the Eighteenth Century’, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 34 (2011), 503–15; James Kelly, ‘John Cunningham (ed.), Early Modern Ireland and the World of Medicine: Practitioners, Collectors and Contexts’, SHM 33 (2019), 330–1.

5 Stanisław Janeczek, Oświecenie chrześcijańskie: z dziejów polskiej kultury filozoficznej [Christian Enlightenment: The History of Polish Philosophical Culture] (Lublin, 1994); Jerzy Lukowski, ‘Recasting Utopia: Montesquieu, Rousseau and the Polish Constitution of 3 May 1791’, HistJ 37 (1994), 65–87; S. J. Barnett, The Enlightenment and Religion: The Myths of Modernity (Manchester, 2003); David Sorkin, The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews, and Catholics from London to Vienna (Princeton, NJ, 2008); Jeffrey D. Burson, ‘The Crystallization of Counter-Enlightenment and Philosophe Identities: Theological Controversy and Catholic Enlightenment in Pre-Revolutionary France’, ChH 77 (2008), 955–1002; Ulrich Lehner and Micheal O'Neil Printy, eds, A Companion to the Catholic Enlightenment in Europe (Leiden, 2010); Rafał Szczurowski, Zaradzić potrzebom doczesnym i wiecznym: idee oświecenia w Kościele katolickim w Polsce (do 1795r.) [Addressing Temporal and Eternal Needs: Ideas of Enlightenment in the Catholic Church in Poland to 1795] (Kraków, 2014); Ulrich Lehner, Catholic Enlightenment: The Forgotten Story of the Global Movement (Oxford, 2016).

6 Danuta Gorecki, ‘The Commission of National Education and Civic Revival through Books in Eighteenth-Century Poland’, Journal of Library History 15 (1980), 138–66.

7 Michał Grzybowski, Kościelna działalność Michała Jerzego Poniatowskiego biskupa płockiego 1773–1785 [The Church Activity of Michał Jerzy Poniatowski, Bishop of Płock 1773–1785] (Warsaw, 1983); Tadeusz Kasabuła, Ignacy Massalski biskup wileński [Ignacy Massalski, Bishop of Vilnius] (Lublin, 1998); Richard Butterwick, Polish Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1788–1792: A Political History (Oxford 2011).

8 Janina Rosicka, ‘Ekonomia a Oświecenie chrześcijańskie: pijarzy i fizjokratyzm’ [‘Economy and Christian Enlightenment: Piarists and Physiocracy’], in Irena Stasiewicz-Jasiukowa, ed., Wkład pijarów do nauki i kultury w Polsce XVII–XIX wieku [The Contribution of the Piarists to Science and Culture in Poland in the 17th–19th Centuries] (Warsaw and Kraków, 1993), 151–71; Kazimierz Puchowski, Jezuickie kolegia szlacheckie Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów: studium z dziejów edukacji elit [Jesuit Colleges for Nobility in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: A Study in the History of Education of the Elite] (Gdańsk, 2007).

9 Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘Shepherds of the Catholic Flock: Polish Parochial Clergy, Popular Religion, and the Reception of the Council of Trent’, in Luise Schorn-Schütte, ed., Gelehrte Geistlichkeit – Geistliche Gelehrte: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Bürgertums in der Frühneuzeit, Historische Forschungen 97 (Berlin, 2012), 25–52; Tomasz Wiślicz, Earning Heavenly Salvation: Peasant Religion in Lesser Poland, Mid-Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries (Berlin, 2020).

10 Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘Religijność wiejska w Rzeczpospolitej szlacheckiej’ [‘Rural Religiosity in the Republic of Nobles’], Barok 11 (2004), 97–118; Anna Niedźwiedź, ‘Od religijności ludowej do religii przeżywanej’ [‘From Popular Religiosity to Lived Religion’], in Barbara Fatyga and Ryszard Michalski, eds, Kultura Ludowa. Teorie. Prkatyki. Polityki [Popular Culture. Theories. Practices. Policies] (Warsaw, 2014), 327–38; Kim Knibbe and Helena Kupari, ‘Theorizing Lived Religion: Introduction’, JCR 35 (2020), 157–76.

11 Jonathan Israel, A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy (Princeton, NJ, 2010).

12 Richard Butterwick considers this to be the trait of Enlightened Catholicism, rather than Catholic Enlightenment: ‘What Is Enlightenment (Oświecenie)? Some Polish Answers, 1765–1820’, Central Europe 3 (2005), 19–37; idem, ‘Between Anti-Enlightenment and Enlightened Catholicism: Provincial Preachers in Late Eighteenth-Century Poland-Lithuania’, in idem, Simon Davies and Gabriel Sánchez Espinosa, eds, Peripheries of the Enlightenment, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 2008), 201–28; Maciej Janowski, ‘Warsaw and Its Intelligentsia: Urban Space and Social Change, 1750–1831’, Acta Poloniae Historica 100 (2009), 7–77; Martyna Deszczyńska, Polskie Kontroświecenie [The Polish Counter-Enlightenment] (Warsaw, 2011); Richard Butterwick, ‘Między oświeceniem a katolicyzmem, czyli o katolickim oświeceniu i oświeconym katolicyzmie’ [‘Between the Enlightenment and Catholicism, or, on Catholic Enlightenment and Enlightened Catholicism’], Wiek Oświecenia 30 (2014), 11–55; Witecki, Przekaz kulturowy, 51–7.

13 Luise Schorn-Schutte, ‘The Christian Clergy in the Early Modern Holy Roman Empire: A Comparative Social Study’, SCJ 29 (1998), 717–31; Ian Green, ‘“Reformed Pastors” and Bons Curés: The Changing Role of the Parish Clergy in Early Modern Europe’, in W. J. Sheils and Diana Wood, eds, The Ministry: Clerical and Lay, SCH 26 (Oxford, 1989), 249–86; Robert Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, 1400–1750 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1985); J. Michael Hayden and Malcolm R. Greenshields, ‘The Clergy of Early Seventeenth-Century France: Self-Perception and Society's Perception’, French Historical Studies 18 (1993), 145–72, at 145; Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 2009); Magdalena Ślusarska, ‘Oświeceniowe modele biskupa, plebana i parafii: kontynuacja czy zmiana tradycji?’ [‘Enlightenment Models of the Bishop, Priest and Parish: Continuation or Change of Tradition?’], in eadem, ed., Dwór – plebania – rodzina chłopska [Manor House – Vicarage – Peasant Family] (Warsaw, 1998), 37–53.

14 Rafał Szczurowski, ‘Jubileuszowe kazania księży Michała Karpowicza (1744–1803) i Wilhelma Kalińskiego (1747–1789) w zmiennych ocenach badaczy’ [‘The Jubilee Sermons of Priests Michał Karpowicz (1744–1803) and Wilhelm Kaliński (1747–1789) in the varying Assessments of Researchers’], Folia Historica Cracoviensia 10 (2004), 347–60, at 352.

15 Ambroise Jobert, Magnats Polonais et Physiocrates Français (1767–1774) (Paris, 1941); Janina Rosicka, ed., ‘Fizjokratyzm w Polsce’ [‘Physiocracy in Poland’], in eadem, ed., Physiocracy Yesterday and Today (Kraków, 1996), 157–70; Ewa Ziółek, ‘Fizjokrata na sejmie wielkim, czyli o poglądach biskupa Józefa Kossakowskiego w sprawie włościan’ [A Physiocrat at the Grand Seym: On the Views of Bishop Józef Kossakowski regarding the Peasantry], in Urszula Borkowska et al., eds, Peregrinatio Ad Veritatem: studia ofiarowane profesor Aleksandrze Witkowskiej OSU z Okazji 40-Lecia Pracy Naukowej [Peregrinatio Ad Veritatem: Studies presented to Professor Aleksandra Witkowska OSU to mark 40 Years of Scholarly Work] (Lublin, 2004).

16 Franz A. J. Szabo, ‘Cameralism, Josephinism, and Enlightenment: The Dynamic of Reform in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1740–92’, Austrian History Yearbook 49 (2018), 1–14; Ilona Bažantová, ‘Cameralism, so called Political Sciences, and the Rationale behind the Austrian Economic and Administrative Reforms in the Second Half of 18th Century, focusing on the Czech Lands’, Journal on European History of Law 9 (2018), 129–39.

17 Grzegorz Piramowicz, ‘Uwagi o Lekarskiej Sztuce’ [‘Remarks on the Art of Medicine’], Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne [Enjoyable and Useful Activities] 10/2 (1774), 209–24. In the same issue, he recommended a reading of the Polish translation of Samuel Tissot's medical work, Avis au peuple sur sa santé (Lausanne, 1761); Grzegorz Piramowicz, ‘List pewnego nauką znakomitego męża do tłumaczów księgi doktorskiej pana Tissot, pod tytułem: Rada dla pospólstwa względem zdrowia jego, po wydanym dziele pisany, Die 25. Jan: 1774’ [‘A Letter from a certain Eminent Man to the Translators of the Medical Book of Mr Tissot under the Title: Advice for the People regarding their Health, written after Publication of the Book, 25. Jan: 1774’], Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne 10/2 (1774), 354–61.

18 For more on healthcare publications in the Commonwealth, see Jakub Węglorz, ‘Metody terapeutyczne stosowane w medycynie nowożytnej na terenach Rzeczypospolitej w XVII i XVIII w. w kontekście charakterystyki wykorzystanych źródeł’ [‘Therapeutic Methods used in Early Modern Medicine in the Territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 17th and 18th Centuries in the Context of the Characteristics of the Sources used’], Historyka. Studia Metodologiczne 48 (2018), 95–109; Jarosław Barański, ‘Cnoty lekarza w polskiej lekarskiej myśli filozoficzno-moralnej w XVIII i XIX wieku’ [‘The Virtues of Physicians in Polish Medical, Philosophical and Moral Thought during the 18th and 19th Centuries’], Medycyna Nowożytna 25 (2019), 27–49.

19 Risse, ‘Medicine in the Age of Enlightenment’, 155–71.

20 Weronika Kocela, Trudna sztuka babienia: kultura medyczna Polski drugiej połowy XVIII wieku [The Difficult Art of Midwifery: Polish Medical Culture in the Second Half of the 18th Century] (Warsaw, 2020), 14–31.

21 Adam Wrzosek, ‘Założenie Królewskiej Szkoły Lekarskiej w Grodnie za Stanisława Augusta’ [‘The Foundation of the Royal Medical School in Grodno under Stanisław August’], Archiwum Historji i Filozofji Medycyny oraz Histoji Nauk Przyrodniczych 2 (1925), 149–68, at 164.

22 Mirosława Chamcówna and Kamilla Mrozowska, Dzieje Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w latach 1765–1850 [The History of the Jagiellonian University in the Years 1765–1850], 2 vols (Kraków, 1965), 2: part 1.

23 Janina Kamińska, ‘Szkoła Główna Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego jako uczelnia oświeceniowa’ [‘The Main School of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as an Enlightenment University’], Kwartalnik Historii Nauki i Techniki 60 (2015), 55–67.

24 Andrzej Gawroński, Onufry Kopczyński and Grzegorz Piramowicz, Elementarz Dla Szkół Parafialnych Narodowych [Elementary Textbook for National Parish Schools] (Warsaw, 1785).

25 Tadeusz Mizia, Szkolnictwo parafialne w czasach Komisji Edukacji Narodowej [Parish Education during the Time of the Commission for National Education] (Wrocław, 1964); Przemysław Jędrzejewski, ‘Szkolnictwo parafialne województwa krakowskiego w dobie Sejmu Wielkiego (1788–1792)’ [‘Parish Education in the Krakow Voivodeship during the Time of the Great Sejm (1788–1792)’], in Katarzyna Dormus, ed., Komisja Edukacji Narodowej: kontekst historyczno-pedagogiczny [Commission for National Education: Historical and Pedagogical Context] (Kraków, 2014), 251–78.

26 Michał Poniatowski, ‘List Pasterski Do Oboyga Stanów Dyecezyi Płockiey tak Duchownego, yako i Swieckiego wydany’ [‘Pastoral Letter to both States of the Diocese of Płock, Clergy as well as Laity’], in Rozrządzenia Y Pisma Pasterskie Za Rządów J. O. Xięcia JMci Michała Jerzego Poniatowskiego Biskupa Płockiego &tc. &tc. Do Dyecezyi Płockiey Wydane: Dla wygody teyże Dyecezyi zebrane, i do Druku podane [Ordinances and Pastoral Letters of Michał Jerzy Poniatowski, Bishop of Płock, to the Diocese of Płock: Issued for the Convenience of the Diocese, collected and submitted to Print], 4 vols (Warsaw, 1785), 1: 391–589, at 449.

27 Kapłan Sługa Boży y Pasterz Dusz, Czyli List Xiędza Plebana do Xiędza Brata Swego Zamykaiący w Krótkim zebraniu obowiąski Kapłańskie i Pasterza Dusz [The Priest, Servant of God and Shepherd of Souls, that is, a Letter from the Priest to his priestly Brother, briefly describing the Duties of the Priest and Shepherd of Souls] (Wilno, 1793).

28 Magdalena Ślusarska, ‘Ku odnowie życia religijno-moralnego wiernych i poprawie ich obyczajów: duchowieństwo diecezji wileńskiej w okresie pontyfikatu biskupa Ignacego Jakuba Massalskiego (1762–1794) a oświeceniowa reforma katolicka’ [‘Towards the Renewal of the Religious and Moral Life of the Faithful and the Improvement of their Mores: The Clergy of the Vilnius Diocese during the Pontificate of Bishop Ignacy Jakub Massalski (1762–1794) and Enlightened Catholic Reform’], Senoji Lietuvos Literatūra 33 (2010), 171–210, at 181. The programme of the Jubilee and other relevant documents were published as Tomasz Hussarzewski, ed., Ksiąszka Jubileuszowa na Diecezyą Wilenską z Rozkazu Jasnie Oswieconego Pasterza Roku 1776 [Jubilee Book for the Year 1776 for the Diocese of Vilnius, by Order of the Illustrious Shepherd] (Wilno, 1776).

29 For more about rural missions, see Louis Châtellier, The Religion of the Poor: Rural Missions in Europe and the Formation of Modern Catholicism, c.1500–1800 (Cambridge, 1997).

30 Vilnius, Vilniaus universiteto biblioteka, F57-B53-1414, ‘Protocollum actorum curiae … Dni Ignatii Jakobi principis Massalski, episcopi Vilnensis … sub auditoriatu D. Antoni Kruszewski … 1785 … inchoatum’ (Wilno, 1785), 161.

31 Jan Kracik, Pokonać czarną śmierć: staropolskie postawy wobec zarazy [Overcoming the Black Death: Polish Attitudes towards the Plague in the Early Modern Period] (Kraków, 1991); Andrzej Karpiński, W walce z niewidzialnym wrogiem: epidemie chorób zakaźnych w Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku i ich następstwa demograficzne, społeczno-ekonomiczne i polityczne [The Fight against the Invisible Enemy: Epidemics of Infectious Diseases in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th–18th Centuries and their Demographic, Socio-Economic and Political Consequences] (Warsaw, 2000); Katarzyna Pękacka-Falkowska, Dżuma w Toruniu w trakcie III wojny północnej [Plague in Toruń during the Third Northern War] (Lublin, 2019).

32 Ignacy Jakub Massalski, Incipit: Nie Przestaje Nas Dotykać Ręka Boska … [Incipit: The Hand of God does not cease to touch us …] (Wilno, 1771).

33 Rafał Szczurowski, ‘Jubileuszowe kazania’.

34 Wilhelm Kaliński, Dziennik 1787–1788 [Journal 1787–1788], Archiwum Dziejów Oświaty 4 (Wrocław, 1968). For more about experiencing health, see Michael Stolberg, Experiencing Illness and the Sick Body in Early Modern Europe (London, 2011).

35 Richard Butterwick, ‘Catholicism and Enlightenment in Poland-Lithuania’, in Lehner and Printy, eds, Companion to the Catholic Enlightenment, 297–358, at 317.

36 Witecki, Przekaz kulturowy, 142–69, 249–50. See also idem, ‘The Base of the Parochial Book Collections of the Catholic Church in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Stanislaus Era’ [database], 20 September 2018, online at: <http://ksiegozbioryparafialne.omnino.com.pl/?action=geoQuery>, accessed 28 January 2021.

37 Jan Kaczyński, ‘Kazanie o Obowiązkach Lekarzów Względem Chorych, Przez Xiędza Jana Kaczynskiego Altarzystę Goworowskiego’ [‘Sermon on the Duties of Physicians towards the Sick, by Father Jan Kaczynski, Altarist of Goworów’], in Kazania Niektóre ICHMć Xsięży Diecezyi Płockiey. z podawanych co rocznie dwiema ratami w Maju i w Październiku do Kancelaryi Zadwornej Biskupiej 1782. Teraz z teyże Kancelaryi Wydane i do Druku Podane [Sermons of some of the Priests of the Diocese of Płock, from those submitted to the Bishop's Chancellery twice a Year in May and October]. (Warsaw, 1785), 131–47.

38 The anons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent, celebrated under the Sovereign Pontiffs, Paul III, Julius III and Pius IV, transl. James Waterworth (London, 1848), ch. 8, session 25, 262-4.

39 Stanisław Litak, Od Reformacji Do Oświecenia: Kościół Katolicki w Polsce Nowożytnej [From the Reformation to the Enlightenment: The Catholic Church in Early Modern Poland] (Lublin, 1994), 58–61.

40 Bolesław Kumor, ‘Opieka społeczna Kościoła w świetle ustawodawstwa synodalnego w Polsce (do 1795)’ [‘Church Social Care in the Light of Synodal Legislation in Poland to 1795’], in Urszula Augustyniak and Andrzej Karpiński, eds, Charitas. Miłosierdzie i opieka społeczna w ideologii, normach postępowania i praktyce społeczności wyznaniowych w Rzeczypospolitej XVI–XVIII wieku [Charitas. Charity and Social Care in the Ideology, Standards of Conduct and Practice of Religious Communities in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 16th–18th Centuries] (Warsaw, 1999), 11–18.

41 Stanisław Litak, Parafie w Rzeczypospolitej w XVI–XVIII wieku: struktura, funkcje społeczno-religijne i edukacyjne [Parishes in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 16th–18th Centuries: Structure, Social, Religious and Educational Functions] (Lublin, 2004), 329–60; Marian Surdacki, Opieka społeczna w Polsce do końca XVIII wieku [Social Welfare in Poland to the End of the 18th Century] (Lublin, 2015).

42 Józef Kossakowski, Xiądz Pleban [The Parish Priest] (Warsaw, 1786).

43 Mieczysław Motyka, ‘“Ksiądz Pleban” Józefa Kossakowskiego wobec doświadczeń Rzeczypospolitej Pawłowskiej’ [‘“The Parish Priest” by Józef Kossakowski in the Light of the Experience of the Republic of Pawłów’], Roczniki Naukowo-Dydaktyczne WSP w Rzeszowie [Scientific and Didactic Yearbooks of the WSP in Rzeszów] 4 (1969), 7–17.

44 Poniatowski, ‘List Pasterski Do Oboyga Stanów’, 453.

45 Idem, ‘Ustanowienie Bractwa Miłosierdzia po Parafiach w Diecezyi Płockiey’ [‘The Establishment of the Brotherhood of Mercy in the Parishes of the Diocese of Płock’], in Rozrządzenia Y Pisma Pasterskie, 2: 426–504.

46 Jan Kracik, ‘Oświeceniowa dobroczynność w sarmackim świecie? Bractwo Miłosierdzia prymasa Poniatowskiego w diecezji krakowskiej’ [‘Enlightenment Charity in the Sarmatian World? The Brotherhood of Mercy of Primate Poniatowski in the Diocese of Krakow’], Studia Historyczne 32 (1989), 201–12, at 208–12.

47 Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘Ex-Votos in the World of Objects of Polish Peasants in the Early Modern Times’, Acta Poloniae Historica 102 (2010), 133–46.

48 Kraków, Biblioteka Jagiellońska, 2433, Kazimierz Jan Kanty Dziuliński, ‘Diariusz potocznych rzeczy i wydatków na różne domowe potrzeby’ [‘Diary of Everyday Things and Expenses for various Household Needs’] (1693).

49 Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France, 218.

50 Some priests, however, had supported such local cults and had initiated their authorization: Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘“Miraculous Sites” in the Early Modern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’, in Thomas Wünsch, ed., Religion und Magie in Ostmitteleuropa: Spielräume Theologischer Normierungsprozesse in Spätmittelalter und Früher Neuzeit (Berlin, 2006), 287–99.

51 Poniatowski, ‘List Pasterski Do Oboyga Stanów’, 476.

52 Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘Dziwne, przypadkowe i nadzwyczajne: zbiory miraculów z XVII i XVIII wieku jako źródło do badań kulturowych’ [‘Strange, Accidental and Extraordinary: 17th- and 18th-Century Miracula Collections as a Source for Cultural Research’], in Iwona Dacka-Górzyńska and Joanna Partyka, eds, Staropolska Literatura Dewocyjna. Gatunki, Tematy, Funkcje [Old Polish Devotional Literature: Genres, Themes, Functions] (Warsaw, 2015), 225–34.

53 Małgorzata Delimata-Proch, ‘Konflikt czy współzawodnictwo? O zakresie, metodach oraz skuteczności działania cyrulików i niebieskich uzdrowicieli w świetle polskiego piśmiennictwa mirakularnego (XVII–XVIII w.)’ [‘Conflict or Competition? On the Scope, Methods and Effectiveness of Barber Surgeons and Heavenly Healers in the Light of Polish Miracular Literature (17th–18th Centuries)’], Medycyna Nowożytna 24 (2018), 139–52; Kathryn Edwards, ed., Everyday Magic in Early Modern Europe (Farnham, 2015).

54 Witecki, Przekaz kulturowy, 330.

55 Jan Stanisław Kostka Wujkowski, Chleb duchowny, wszytkim chrześćianom na pośiłek w drodze, do nieba idącym wystawiony albo raczey Katechizm na świat polski wychodzący: krotkie nauki chrześćiańskiey z rożnemi w sobie zebranie maiący … [Spiritual Bread for all Christians, for a Meal on the Way to Heaven, or, the Catechism for the Polish World: A Collection of short Christian Teachings …] (Kalisz, 1733), 298–305.

56 Witecki, Przekaz kulturowy, 303–9.

57 Lehner, Catholic Enlightenment, 144–5; Butterwick, ‘Catholicism and Enlightenment’, 318.

58 Tomasz Wiślicz, ‘Czary przed sądami wiejskimi w Polsce w XVI–XVII w.’ [‘Witchcraft before Rural Courts in Poland in the 16th and 17th Centuries’], Czasopismo Prawno-Historyczne [Journal of Legal History] 49 (1997), 47–63; Jacek Wijaczka, ‘Procesy o czary w Polsce w dobie Oświecenia: zarys problematyki’ [‘Witchcraft Trials in Poland during the Enlightenment: An Overview of the Issues’], Klio 7 (2005), 17–62; Małgorzata Pilaszek, Procesy o czary w Polsce w wiekach XV–XVIII [Witchcraft Trials in Poland in the 15th–18th Centuries] (Kraków, 2008).

59 Jan Kracik, ‘Post po staropolsku’ [‘Fasting in the old Polish Style’], in idem, Paradoksy z Dziejów Kościoła [Paradoxes in the History of the Church] (Kraków, 2012), 202–11; Jędrzej Kitowicz, Opis Obyczajów Za Panowania Augusta III [A Description of Customs during the Reign of August III] (Warsaw, 2003), online at: <https://literat.ug.edu.pl/kitowic/k0007.htm>, accessed 28 January 2021. The observance of fasts had much deeper reasons than those portrayed by opponents. Dietary restrictions not only have pious purposes, but also play a role in community building and identity construction. They appear to constitute one of the universal features of human culture. Polish and Lithuanian discussions of the loosening of fasts therefore require more attention and the adoption of a holistic and comparative anthropological perspective: see David Freidenreich, Foreigners and their Food: Constructing Otherness in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Law (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 2011).

60 Sydney Watts, ‘Enlightened Fasting: Religious Conviction, Scientific Inquiry, and Medical Knowledge in Early Modern France’, in Ken Albala and Eden Trudy, eds, Food and Faith in Christian Culture (New York, 2011), 105–24; Julia Herzberg, ‘Faith on the Menu: Conflicts around Fasting in Muscovy’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 21 (2020), 371–400.

61 Michał Poniatowski, ‘Pozwolenie dla Diecezyi Płockiey z mocy Stolicy Apostolskiej zażywania w dni postne potraw maślnych’ [‘Permission for the Diocese of Płock, issued by the Holy See, for eating Dairy Products on Fast Days’], in Rozrządzenia Y Pisma Pasterskie, 2: 420–5.

62 Michał Kurdybacha, ‘Wstęp’ [‘Introduction’], in Kaliński, Dziennik 1787–1788, 11. For example, on 15 February 1785 he allowed dairy products to be eaten during a fast: Vilnius, Vilniaus universiteto biblioteka, F57-B53-1414, Protocollum, 34.

63 Stanisław Librowski, ‘Konferencje Biskupów XVIII Wieku Jako Instytucja Zastępująca Synody Prowincjonalne. Cz. 1: Obrady w Sprawach Kościoła i Szczątkowa Po Nich Dokumentacja’ [‘Eighteenth-Century Episcopal Conferences as the Substitute for Provincial Synods. Part 1: Debates on Church Affairs and Residual Documentation’], Archiwa, Biblioteki, i Muzea Kościelne [Archives, Libraries and Church Museums] 47 (1983), 239–311, at 279.

64 Wacław Hieronim Sierakowski, Prawo Święte Kościoła Chrystusowego o Postach [The Holy Law of the Church of Christ regarding Fasting] (Lwów, 1761); Andrzej Kraśnicki, ‘Posty w Dawnej Polsce’ [‘Fasts in Old Poland’], Collectanea Theologica 12 (1931), 190–235, at 195–6. I would like to thank Kilian Harrer for informing me of the request of Łubieński and the work by Sierakowski.

65 See, for example, Lublin, Archiwum Archidiecezjalne Lubelskie, Rep 60A, 170, Protocollum actorum curiae episcopalis (1791–1802), 318–21.

66 Edward Likowski, ed., Synody dyecezyi chełmskiej ob. wsch [Synods of the Chełm Diocese of the Eastern Rite] (Poznań, 1902).

67 Wujkowski, Chleb duchowny, 399–407.

68 Kracik, ‘Post po staropolsku’, 178–9.

69 Vigarello, Georges, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2008)Google Scholar.

70 Ksiąszka Jubileuszowa na Diecezyą Wilenską, unpaginated.

71 Roberts, Penny, ‘Contesting Sacred Space: Burial Disputes in Sixteenth-Century France’, in Gordon, Bruce and Marshall, Peter, eds, The Place of the Dead: Death and Remembrance in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2000), 131–48Google Scholar; Coster, Will J. and Spicer, Andrew, eds, Sacred Space in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2005)Google Scholar; Mateusz Wyżga, ‘Funkcjonowanie wiejskich cmentarzy parafii katolickich w dobie przedrozbiorowej na przykładzie dekanatów Nowa Góra, Skała i Proszowice z okolic Krakowa’ [‘The Functioning of Rural Cemeteries of Catholic Parishes in the Pre-Partition Era as exemplified by the Deaneries of Nowa Góra, Skała and Proszowice in the Vicinity of Krakow’], Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej [Quarterly Journal of the History of Material Culture] 62 (2014), 441–62.