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² On Diderot’s unfulfilled expectations, Anthony Srrugnell, Diderot’s Politics: a Study of the Evolution of Diderot’s Political Thought after the Encyclopédie (The Hague, 1973); on his single journey outside France, A. M. Wilson, ‘Diderot in Russia, 1773–1774’, in Garrard, J. G., ed., The Eighteenth Century in Russia (Oxford, 1973), pp. 166–97.Google Scholar

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⁶ Pietre Pascal, The Religion of the Russian People (London, 1976), p. 91. The definitive history of this ‘evolution’ remains to be written. For the fullest extant account, see Pospielovsky, Dimitry V., A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice, and the Believer, 3 vols (London, 1987-8).Google Scholar

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⁹ Pospielovsky, Dimitry, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime, 1917–1982, 2 vols (New York, 1984), 1, pp. 43–92.Google Scholar

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¹³ Bloch, Sidney and Reddaway, Peter, Russia’s Political Hospitals (London, 1978), pp. 158–70, 269–70.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Pospielovsky, Russian Church, 2, p. 459, quoting a sermon at the Russian Orthodox Cathedral in London, 1978.

¹⁵ Isabel de Madariaga, ‘Catherine and the Philosophes’, in Cross, A. G., ed., Russia and the Wat in the Eighteenth Century (Newtonville, Mass., 1983), pp. 30—52.Google Scholar

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¹⁹ Hayward, Max, Writers in Russia, 1917–1978 (London, 1983), p. 87 Google Scholar; Srites, Richard, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (Oxford, 1989), p. 211.Google Scholar

²⁰ Collins, Christopher, Evgenij Zamjatin: an Interpretive Study (The Hague, 1973), pp. 39—43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Freeborn, Richard, The Russian Revolutionary Novel: Turgenev to Pasternak (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 123–8.Google Scholar

²¹ A. P. Chekhov, The Cherry Orchard, Act II.

²² Lavrov, Peter, Historical Letters (Berkeley, 1967), p. 172.Google Scholar

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²⁶ Ibid., p. 141.

²⁷ Szamuely, Russian Tradition, p. 379; Venturi, Franco, Roots of Revolution: a History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Chicago, 1960), pp. 469–506.Google Scholar

²⁸ Quoted by Tumarkin, Nina, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), p. 17.Google Scholar

²⁹ Engelstein, Laura, Moscow 1905: Working-Class Organization and Political Conflict (Stanford, 1982), pp. 140—2 Google Scholar; Ascher, Abraham, The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray (Stanford, 1988), pp. 262–5 Google Scholar, quoted at p. 264.

³⁰ Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, p. 113. As George Leggett comments, the irony is that had Uritskii survived Lenin, whom he frequently opposed, ‘he would undoubtedly have been consigned, along with his patron Trotsky, to that refuse heap of history to which Trotsky had contemptuously consigned Martov’: The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford, 1981), p. 269.

³¹ Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 160–4.

³² Ibid., ch. 6; Tumarkin, Nina, ‘Religion, Bolshevism, and the Origins of the Lenin Cult’, Russian Review, Nina 40 (1981), pp. 35—46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³³ Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 84, 115.

³⁴ Ibid., pp. 172–3.

³⁵ Kenez, Peter, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917–1020 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁶ Among the most influential contributors to this image has been Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (London, 1957).

³⁷ I am currently writing an account of late nineteenth-century Orthodoxy which explores the implications of this imperial perspective. For preparatory comments, see my essay, ‘The Church’s Social Role in St Petersburg, 1880–1914’, in Geoffrey A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation and State in Russia and Ukraine (London, 1991), pp. 167–92.

³⁸ Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (St Petersburg, 1906), 1, pt 1, art. 62; Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (Harmondsworth, 1963), p. 23.

³⁹ D 1. Sapozhnikov, Samosozhzhenie v russkom raskole (so vtoroi poloviny XVII veka do kontsa XVIII): istoricheskii ocherk po arkhivnym dannym (Moscow, 1891; repr. Farnborough, 1971), passim.

⁴⁰ Crummey, Robert O., The Old Believers and the World of Antichrist: The Vyg Community and the Russian State, 1694–1855 (Madison, 1970), pp. 44–5, 55–6, 102–3.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Crummey, Robert O., ‘The Spirituality of the Vyg Fathers’, in Hosking, ed., Church, Nation and State, pp. 23–37 Google Scholar, quoted at pp. 25–6.

⁴² Ware, Kallistos, ‘The Meaning of the Great Fast’, in The Lenton Triodion, p. 57 Google Scholar, emphasis in the original.

⁴³ Though statistical information is sparse, it is probable that in the last years of the Empire, most Orthodox confessed and communicated no more often than their annual legal obligation.

⁴⁴ Pospielovsky, Russian Church, i, p. 105, n. 16.

⁴⁵ Levirin, Anatoly, ‘The Russian Orthodox Renovationist Movement and its Russian historio graphy during the Soviet period’, in Sabrina Petra Ramet, ed., Religious Policy in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, 1993), p. 290.Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ Pospielovsky, Russian Church, i, p. 5; LevRegel’son, Tragediia russkoi tserkvi, 1917–1945 (Paris, 1977). pp. 613–14.

⁴⁸ Smith, S. A., Red Petrograd: Revolution in the Factories, 1917–18 (Cambridge, 1983), p. 243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵⁰ Trotsky, Leon, Lenin (London, 1925), p. 152.Google Scholar

⁵¹ For contrasting interpretations of the Bolsheviks’ use of terror, cf. Mary McAuley, Bread and Justice: State and Society in Petrograd, 1917–1922 (Oxford, 1991), ch. 18, emphasizing bureaucracy and ‘relatively mild social intimidation’, with Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution, 1899–1919 (London, 1990), ch. 18, where it is claimed that ‘terror was not a defensive weapon but an instrument of governance.’

⁵² Quoted in Leggett, Cheka, p. 108.

⁵³ Ibid., pp. 186–203; Chemaia kniga (“shlurm nebes”) (Paris, 1925), pp. 33–9, 43–8.

⁵⁴ English and German versions of the Chemaia kniga (see above n. 53) appeared in 1924. I have seen only the Russian edition, though there are English extracts in Pospielovsky, Russian Church, 2, pp. 477–81. Further extracts from the Press appear in Regel’son’s documentary appendix, Tragediia, pp. 201–521.

⁵⁵ Metropolic Manuil (Lemesevskij), Die Russischen-Orthodoxen Bischõfe von 1893 bis 1965, 5 vols (Erlangen, 1979–87).

⁵⁶ Pol’skii, Procopresviter M., ed., Novye mucheniki rossiiskie, 2 vols (Jordanville, NY, 1949–57)Google Scholar. The second volume prints illustrations and corrections to the first.

⁵⁷ Pascal, Religion of the Russian People, pp. 105–9. Viktor (Ostrovidov), suffragan bishop of Viatka, had been sent to Solovki following his protest against Metropolitan Sergii’s declaration of loyalty to the Soviet State in 1927: see Manuil, Russischen Bischõfe, 2, pp. 167–72; Pol’skii, Novye mucheniki, 2, pp. 70–7.

⁵⁸ Fedotov, George P., The Russian Religious Mind (I): Kievan Christianity, the Tenth to the Thirteenth Centuries (Belmont, Mass., 1975), pp. 94–110, quoted at pp. 95, 105Google Scholar; Regel’son, Tragediia, p. 49. See also now R. M. Price, ‘Boris and Gleb: princely martyrs and martyrology in Kievan Russia’, above, pp. 105–15.

⁵⁹ Remarkably, John Bowker, Problems of Suffering in Religions of the World (Cambridge, 1970), omits discussion of Eastern Christianity ‘for reasons of space’, but finds room for a chapter on Marxism : p. 98, n. 1, pp. 137–92.

⁶⁰ Father Borovoi used the expression in his 1978 sermon, quoted above, n. 14.

⁶¹ E. MacNaughten, ‘Informal Report of religious situation in Russia’, 3 Oct. 1927, quoted by Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns, p. 47.

⁶² Regel’son, Tragediia, p. 255.

⁶³ tWalters, Philip, ‘A survey of Soviet religious policy’, in Ramet, ed., Religious Policy, p. 6 Google Scholar; Hosking, Soviet Union, p. 228.

⁶⁴ Pospielovsky, Dimitry V., ‘The Survival of the Russian Orthodox Church in her Millennial Century: Faith as Martyria in an Atheistic State’, in Hosking, ed., Church, Nation and State, p. 274 Google Scholar; Spinka, Matthew, The Church in Soviet Russia (New York, 1956), p. 21.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Pospielovsky, Russian Church, 1, p. 99.

⁶⁶ Chernaia kniga, p. 50.

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⁶⁸ Schmemann, Historical Road, p. 37.

⁶⁹ A representative selection of current concerns appears in Diane P. Koenker, William G. Rosenberg, and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds, Party, State, and Society in the Russian Civil War Explorations in Social History (Bloomington, 1989), though the most original contribution is Orlando Figes, The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War, 1918—1920’, PaP, 129 (1990), pp. 168–211.

⁷⁰ Ware, Orthodox Church, p. 156.

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⁷² Curtiss, John Shelton, The Russian Church ana the Soviet State, 1917–1950 (Boston, 1953), p. 10.Google Scholar

⁷³ Mawdsley, Evan, The Russian Civil War (London, 1987), p. 10 Google Scholar. As we have seen, taunts were common.

⁷⁴ Curtiss, The Russian Church, p. 89. Curtiss is criticized by Pascal for showing ‘extreme indulgence toward the Soviet authorities’: Religion of the Russian People, p. 98.

⁷⁵ Kenez, Propaganda Stale, pp. 183, 68.

⁷⁶ Letter to Maxim Gorky, Nov. 1913, quoted in Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (London, 1986), p. 199.

⁷⁷ Robert Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: a Study in Organisational Change, 1917–1923 (London, 1979); Orlando Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War. the Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917–1921 (Oxford, 1989), ch. 5.

⁷⁸ McAuley, Bread and Justice, p. 412.

⁷⁹ Peter Kenez, ‘The Bolsheviks and the Intelligentsia’, in Koenker et al., eds, Party, State and Society, p. 242.

⁸⁰ Walters, ‘A survey’, p. 6.

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⁹⁰ Pospielovsky, for example, sees it as part of his function to ‘help to remove the onus of blame for the persecutions from the Church, as laid upon her by Professor Curtiss, and to return it to where it belongs: to Marxism-Leninism and its first state’: Russian Church, i, p. 143.

⁹¹ Hosking, History of the Soviet Union, p. 11.

⁹² Barabanov, ‘The Schism’, p. 185. As Ellis has shown, Barabanov echoes an earlier essay by Michael Meerson-Aksenov, ‘The People of God and the Pastors’, in Michael Meerson-Aksenov and Boris Shragin, eds, The Political, Social and Religious Thought of Russian ‘Samizdat’—an Anthology (Belmont, Mass., 1977), pp. 511–41. See Ellis, Orthodox Church, pp. 332–6.

⁹³ Mandelstam, Nadezhda, Hope Against Hope: a Memoir (London, 1071), pp. 42–3.Google Scholar

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⁹⁸ Rogger, Hans, Jewish Policia and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (London, 1986), p. 213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹⁰⁵ Farnsworth, Beatrice, Aleksandra Kollontai: Socialism, Feminism, and the Bolshevik Revolution (Stanford, 1980), pp. 100–1, 116.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns, pp.6, 229, n. II, drawing on Regel’son, Tragediia, p. 243; Manuil, Russischen Bischőfe, 1, pp. 256–8.

¹⁰⁷ Curtiss, The Russian Church, p. 50. Cf. Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns, pp. 3–4, with Gcekie, ‘Church and Polities’, e.g., pp. 120, 132–4.

¹⁰⁸ Curtiss, The Russian Church, p. 53 (translation amended).

¹⁰⁹ Regel’son, Tragediia, p. 42.

¹¹⁰ Translated in Preobrazhensky, ed., Russian Orthodox Church, pp. 270–1, where the significance of the date is scrupulously not mentioned.

¹¹¹ These events are still disputed. The best guide is Pipes, Russian Revolution, pp. 745–88.

¹¹² Leggere, Cheka, p. 40.

¹¹³ Ibid., p. 112; Curtiss, The Russian Church, 1986p. 68.

¹¹⁴ Burbank, Jane, Intelligentsia and Revolution: Russian Views of Bolshevism, 1917–1922 (Oxford, 1986), pp. 184–5.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁸ Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, p. 106.

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