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Ideas and Reality: Some Attempts to Control and Defuse War in the Twelfth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 March 2016

Christopher J. Holdsworth
Christopher J. Holdsworth*
Affiliation:
University of Exeter
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Extract

The track to be explored in this paper was laid down when I realised how relatively unexamined the actual working out of Christian ideas about war within the medieval period is. Recent years have seen appear a notable book about the development of ideas on the Just War, and a great deal of work on the role of the military aristocracy and on its ideals, but upon the coming together of Christianity and actual events there seemed to me very little, at least in the period which interests me most. The one series of events which has attracted attention within what one can call loosely the twelfth century is, of course, the Crusades, but I decided to put them rather at the edge of my focus since they raised special questions, and to invite a scholar who has devoted much time to their elucidation to give a paper upon a crusading theme later in the conference. Yet when one turns for guidance for the history of western Europe there is only one book which stands out, La Guerre au Moyen Age by Philippe Contamine which appeared in the Nouvelle Clio series as recently as 1980, and it, as one would expect from its author’s earlier achievement, is strongest when it deals with the period of the Hundred Years War. Nonetheless it is a remarkable achievement, and one to which I am deeply indebted. But given the fact that the subject is still so unmapped, only two approaches seemed feasible to me, one where I would try to look at a series of specific wars and see what the Church did about them, or one where I would look at a source or group of sources, and see what it, or they, had to say about war and the Church.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Church History , Volume 20: The Church and War , 1983 , pp. 59 - 78
Copyright
Copyright © Ecclesiastical History Society 1983

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References

1 Russell, [Frederick H.], The Just War [in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1975)]Google Scholar. For full bibliography see Contamine as in note 2. Many books exist for the period after 1200, relatively few before.

2 Nouvelle Clio, 24 (Paris 1980), cited below as La Guerre.

3 This paragraph is based on Marjorie Chibnall, The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis I (Oxford 1980) pp 1-44, 113 (and note 1), and cited subsequently as EH, followed by book (and where they exist chapters) with volume and page in brackets. Her article ‘Feudal Society [in Orderic Vitális’, Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1978 ed R. Allen Brown (Ipswich 1979)] pp 35-48 discusses many of the problems dealt with below.

4 ‘. . . miseram illam ecclesiam transmarinam’, Saint Bernard, epistola 240.2 in S. Bernardi Opera edd J. Leclercq and H. Rochais VIII (Rome 1977) p 124. For a translation see James, B. Scott, The Letters of St. Bernard of Chirvaux (London 1953) p 282.Google Scholar

5 EH I pp 29-34, VI, p xviii.

6 The first volume to appear, number II, contains books III and IV, the last to appear, number I, contains books I and II in summary form with introduction and index verhorum.

7 EH XI, 29 (VI p 136).

8 Ibid IX 1 (V p 4). This phrase seems his own: it does not occur in Baudri of Dol upon whom he based his account.

9 La Guuerre pp 462-65.

10 Cowdrey, [H.E.J.], ‘The Peace and Truce [of God in the Eleventh Century’ PP 46 (1970)] p 54.Google Scholar

11 For the penitential tradition see La Guerre pp 427-30, and [G.I.A.] Draper [’Penitential discipline and public wars in the Middle Ages’ The international Review of the Red Cross (1961)] pp 4-18, 63-78.

12 [A.W.] Haddan and [W.] Stubbs, [Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland,] book I cap II. 9, and cap IV. 6; vol III pp 178, 180.

13 For the text see Whitelock, D., Brett, M. and Brooke, C.N.L., Councils and Synods with other Documents relating to the English Church I part II, 1066-1204 (Oxford 1981) pp 581–84 Google Scholar, and the discussion by Cowdrey, H.E.J., ‘Bishop Ermenfried of Sion and the Penitential Ordinance following the battle of Hastings JEH 20 (1969) pp 225–42.Google Scholar

14 See below pp 68-73.

15 Cowdrey, ‘The Peace and Truce’ p 50 note 27.

16 EH IV (II p 219),—bishop of Durham mediates with king of Scots; IV (II p 310), Cardinal priest and monks make peace count of Anjou and king William; VIII (p 234), bishop of Seez fails at seige of Courcy; X, 3 (V p 206), pope Urban in S. Italy; XII, 21 (VI pp 260- 64), homily on peace by Calixtus at Rheims; XIII, 37 (VI pp 522-24), truce made by papal legate between England and Scotland. Other peace-makers are mentioned in VII, 53; X, 5; XI, 45 (IV p 52; V p 218; VI p 180).

17 La Guerre pp 431-32. F. Poggiaspella, ‘La chiese e la partecipazione dei chierici alla guerra nella legislazione conciliare fino alle Decretali di Grigorio IX’ Ephemerides iuris canonici 15 (1959) pp 140-53 is entirely theoretical.

18 EH V, 12 (111 pp 120-22).

19 Cf. Draper p 18.

20 For Odo see EH VII, 8 (IV pp 40-44); VIII, 2 (IV pp 124-134). For Geoffrey, EH VIII, 23 (IV p 278).

21 EH, IV (II p 266).

22 La Guerre pp 431-33.

23 Southern, R.W., Saint Anselm and his biographer (Cambridge 1963) pp 155–60.Google Scholar

24 Cf. Russell, The Just War pp 16-85.

25 EH I p 16; Nortier, G., Les Bibliothèques Médiévales des Abbayes Bénédictines de Normandie (Paris 1971) pp 98–108 Google Scholar, and table following p 191.

26 EH III (II p 117) and X, 7 (V p 227).

27 Ibid XI, 11 (VI pp 60-64 esp 63).

28 Ibid XI, 20 (VI p 86).

29 La Guerre p 425; and Russell, The Just War p 21, on wars of conquest.

30 EH XII, 5 (VI p 200). The phrase itself may be a reminiscence of Lucan, Pharsalia, i.l.

31 EH I, pp 2, 5, 25.

32 Ibid III (II pp 142 and 170), IV (II p 312).

33 Ibid IV (II p 272) and VI, 8 (III p 256).

34 Draper pp 12-13; Penitential of Theodore in Haddan and Stubbs, book 1, cap VII. 2 p 182.

35 EH III (II p 142).

36 BH X, 8 (V p 230).

37 Ibid X, 8 (V pp 238 and 248-50).

38 Ibid XII, 21 (VI pp 256-60 and 264).

39 Ibid XII, 24 (VI pp 282-290).

40 De gestis regum Angbrum, ed Stubbs, W. (RS 1887-9) ii 482.Google Scholar

41 The pope’s grandmother was Henry’s great aunt (EH VI, p 283 note).

42 F.H VI, p 188 note 5, and Marjorie Chibnall, ‘Feudal Society’ pp 37-40.

43 The extensive literature is well discussed by Cowdrey ‘The Peace and Truce’ (the phrase cited is on p 46), and La Guerre pp 433-38. The ambiguity is well indicated by the statutes of the Council of Lillebonne in 1080 which begin ‘Pax Dei quae vulgo trema dietim . . . ‘ EH V, 5 (III p 26).

44 F.H IX, 3 (V p 20: where the clause to be quoted comes in the middle of clauses about the Truce, showing how by then the two were merging).

45 La Guene p 426.

46 EH V, 5 (III p 26, and see note 43 above).

47 Ibid IX, 2 (V p 13) and IX, 3 (V p 20).

48 Ibid IX, 3 (V p 20).

49 Ibid IX,3 (V p 24).

50 Ibid VI, 6 (III pp 242-44); VIII, 16 (IV pp 234-36).

51 Ibid X, 1 (V p 196).

52 Ibid VIII, 17 (IV pp 236-50, esp p 238).

53 Ibid VIII, H (IV p 194) and VIII, 18 (IV p 252).

54 Ibid XII, 20 (VI p 250).

55 Ibid XII, 8 (VI p 208): XII, 13 (VI p 218): XIII, 43 (VI pp 540-542).

56 Ibid XI, 45 (VI p 182).

57 Ibid X, 10 (V p 258).

58 Ibid VIII, 16 (IV p 235): cf. XIII, 23 (VI p 460: death to violators of Pentecost).

59 Ibid XII, 10 (VI p 212-14: this event is peculiarly striking since it is the attempt by Juliana wife of Eustace of Breteuil, to kill her father Henry I). See also balista and balistarius in Index Verborum (I p 256). For the attempt to outlaw see La Guerre pp 165-66. The discussion by [James T.] Johnson, [Just War Tradition and the Restraint of War (Princeton, New Jersey 1981)] pp 128-29 does not seem so well based.

60 EH IV (II p 232).

61 Ibid VIII, 3 (IV pp 138-40).

62 Ibid XIII, 41, 37, 26 (VI pp 536, 518, 472).

63 Ibid VIII, 22 (IV p 270).

64 Ibid XI, 6 (VI p 44).

65 Ibid VIII, 17 (IV p 248).

66 Ibid XII, 18 (VI p 240). There is a good discussion of parallel battles in La Guene pp 413-18.

67 EH X, 5 (V 216-18).

68 Ibid VIII, 5 (IV pp 158, 160); VIII 14 (IV pp 212-14).

69 Cf. Johnson pp 122, 133-38.

70 Georges Duby (translated by Goldhammer, Arthur), The Three Orders (London 1980)Google Scholar; La Guerre pp 420-33, 441-43; J. Fiori, ‘Chevalerie et liturgie. Remise des armes et vocabulaire “chevaleresque” dans les sources liturgiques du IXe and XIVe siècle’ Moyen Age, 84 (1978) pp 247-78, 409-42, a most valuable discussion with texts.

71 Ibid p 275. EH VIII, 1 (IV p 120): for other examples see index Verborum at militaria, arma and militia, arma etc.

72 EH VI, 2-3 (III pp 216, 218-26). For chivalric saints, banners and war cries see La Guerre pp 470-74.

73 Ibid XIII, 45 (VI p 554).

74 Ibid VI, 2 (III p 216).

75 Ibid VI, 4 and 2 (III pp 226, 216).

76 Ibid VI, 8 (III pp 260-62). This passage is well discussed by C. Harper-Bill, ‘The Piety of the Anglo-Norman Knightly Class’, Proceedings of the Battle Conference, 1979 ed. R. Allen Brown (Woodbridge 1980) p 65. The whole article is very rewarding.

77 Chenu, M.D., ‘Moines, clercs, laïcs au carrefour de la vie évangélique’ RHE 69 (1954) 59–89 Google Scholar and reprinted in his La théologie au douzième siècle (Paris 1957) which was translated by Taylor, Jerome and Little, Lester K. as Nature, Man anil Society in the Twelfth Century (Chicago and London 1968) pp 225–51 Google Scholar.

78 EH VIII, 2; VII, 15 (IV pp 128, 90).

79 X, 24; X, 7 (V pp 362, 226). Cf. French cry ‘Montjoie’, XII, 12 (VI p 216).

80 Ibid VIII, 24 (IV p 288); XI, 34, XII, 19 (VI pp 156, 244); XIII, 43 (VI p 544).

81 Fasting before battle, F.H IX, 10, XIII, 4, the second in Spain, (V p 108; VI p 400); prayers and preaching, IX, 10 (with sacrament), IX, 13, IX, 15 (with sacrament) (V pp 108, 110, 138, 164); battle cry to Jesus, IX, 9 (V p 76).

82 Ibid III (II pp 176-178); the crimes were the murder of the Atheling Alfred and to have ‘slaughtered’ King Harold Hardrada and earl Tostig. This last self-defence one would have thought.

83 Ibid VII, 5, and XII, 45 (IV p 16; VI p 368).

84 Cf. F.H Index Verkomm sfortuna (I, p 295).

85 EH VIII, 3 (IV pp 140 and 147). Other epitaphs stressing military prowess are in IV, 350 (II p 350, for Waltheof); V, 9 (III pp 90, 90-92, for Rollo and William Longsword); VIII, 1 and 36 (IV pp 110, 336 for William the Bastard and Hugh of Grandmesnil); XI, 4 and XII, 45 (VI pp 36, 378 for Walter Giffard and William Clito). The whole topic of warrior epitaphs would repay study.

86 La Gume p 471; The Ancrene Riwle, part 7 as modernised by M.B. Salu (London 1955) p 174.

87 La Guerre pp 468-70: Duby, The Three Orders pp 33, 78, 103, 115.

88 EH, Index Verborum provides numerous examples (I pp 324, 325), to which may be added for militia (II p 7) and milito (II p 12). Uses of the verb dimicare are also significant (and here the splendid Index fails) (II pp 12, 244; III p 144).

89 Ibid VII, 15 (IV p 92: the phrase is attributed to king William). For the fight of the monk one may cite as an example Bernard, In Cantica Canticorutn, I. 9 (edd Leclercq and Rocháis, 1, p 7) ‘Sed et in quotidianis exercitiis et bellis, quae nulla hora pie in Christo viventibus desunt a come, a mundo, a diabolo, sicut militiam esse vitam hominis super tenant experiment in vobismetipsis . . .’.

90 Eg. Rule [of St Benedict, trans J. McCann (London 1952)] p 7 Prologue: ‘To thee are my words now addressed . . . that renouncing thine own will to fight for the true King, Christ, dost take up the strong and glorious weapons of obedience’; Eph 6: 11-17.

91 For example at Canterbury in the Eadwine Psalter: Kaufmann, C.M., Romanesque Manuscripts 1066-1190 (A Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles, ed Alexander, J.J., Oxford 1975) 3 pp 96-7 and figure 183.Google Scholar

92 Rule, cap 42 p 100.

93 EH XII, 1 (VI p 184).

94 ‘Civilisation de la pierre’, a phrase of Boutruche cited by Contamine; La Guerre p 128.