Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-c9gpj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-14T13:37:09.396Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reflections on Entrepreneurship and Culture in European Societies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Sidney Pollard
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The theme which I have been asked to consider refers to the whole of Europe, but the terms on which it has been defined made it clear that the focus of interest was still to lie in Britain. I shall bear that focus in mind.

After a brief review of the debate relating to entrepreneurship and culture in Britain in the late Victorian and Edwardian period, the period with which I shall be more specifically concerned, and a similarly cursory examination of the role of entrepreneurship in economic theory and in the writings of economic historians in recent decades, I shall turn to the main theme, entrepreneurship and its cultural setting in the decades before World War I in the rest of Europe. A return to the British problem will complete the paper.

Type
Research Article
Information
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , Volume 40 , December 1990 , pp. 153 - 173
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Historical Society 1990

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Wiener, Martin J., English Culture and the Decline of the Capitalist Spirit 1850–1980 (Cambridge, 1981)Google Scholar.

2 E.g. the review by Ashworth, W. in the Ec.H.R., 2nd ser., xxxiv (1981), 659–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Landes, David S., The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge, 1969), 326–58Google Scholar; Levine, A. L., Industrial Retardation in Britain 1880–1914 (New York, 1967)Google Scholar; Coleman, D. C., ‘Gentlemen and Players’, Ec.H.R., 2ndser. xxvi (1973), 92–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Aldcroft, D. H., ‘Technical Progress and the British Entrepreneur’, Business History, viii (1966) 122–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘The Entrepreneur and the British Economy, 1870–1914’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser. xvii (1964–5), 113–134, and the literature cited there. In recent years Aldcroft's views have become rather less critical: ‘The Economy, Management and Foreign Competition’ in Roderick, Gordon and Stephens, Michael, eds., Where Did We Go Wrong? (Lewes, 1981), 13–31Google Scholar. Also see Richardson, H. W., ‘Retardation in Britain's Industrial Growth, 1870–1913’, in: Aldcroft, Derek H. and Richardson, Harry W., eds., The British Economy 1870–1939 (1969), 101–25Google Scholar.

4 There is a large literature. E.g. Ingham, Geoffrey, Capitalism Divided? The City and Industry in British Social Development (1984)Google Scholar; Cassis, Youssef, Les Banquiers de la City à l'époque Edouardienne (Geneva, 1984)Google Scholar; Lisle-Williams, Michael, ‘Merchant Banking Dynasties in the English Class Structure’, British Journal of Sociology, xxxv (1984), 333–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harris, José and Thane, Pat, ‘British and European Bankers 1880–1914: an Aristocratic Bourgeoisie?’, in Thane, Pat et al. , eds., The Power of the Past: Essays for Eric Hobsbawm (Cambridge, 1984)Google Scholar; Pollard, Sidney, Britain's Prime and Britain's Decline, (1989)Google Scholar, chapter 4.

5 Quoted in Campbell, R. H. and Wilson, R. G., ed., Entrepreneurship in Britain 1750–1939 (1975), 28Google Scholar.

6 Payne, Peter L., ‘Industrial Entrepreneurship and Management in Great Britain’, in Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vii (Cambridge 1978), 180–230CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, British Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth Century (1974), 25–6; Coleman, Donald and MacLeod, Christine, ‘Attitudes to New Techniques: British Businessmen, 1800–1950’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser., xxxix (1986), 588–611CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Wilson, Charles, ‘Economy and Society in Late Victorian Britain’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser. xviii (1965), 183–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ashworth, W., ‘The Late Victorian Economy’, Economica, xxxiii (1966), 17–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Musson, A. E., The Growth of British Industry (1978)Google Scholar, Chapter 8.

8 McCloskey, D. N., Economic Maturity and Entrepreneurial Decline (Cambridge, Mass., 1973)Google Scholar and idem, Enterprise and Trade in Victorian Britain (1981); Hyde, Charles K., Technological Change and the British Iron Industry 1700–1870 (Princeton, 1977), p. 189Google Scholar; Temin, Peter, ‘The Retardation of the British Steel Industry 1880–1913’, in: Rosovsky, Henry ed., Industrialization in Two Systems (New York, 1966), 140–55Google Scholar; Wengenroth, Ulrich, Unternehmensstrategien und technischer Fortschritt. Die deutsche und die britische Slahlindustrie, 1865–1895 (Göttingen 1986)Google Scholar.

9 Sandberg, Lars G., Lancashire in Decline (Columbus, 1974)Google Scholar; Saxonhouse, Gary R. and Wright, Gavin, ‘New Evidence on the Stubborn English Mule and the Cotton Industry, 1878–1920’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser., xxxvii (1984), 507–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Saul, S. B., ‘The Market and the Development of the Mechanical Engineering Industry in Britain, 1860–1914’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser. xx (1967), 111–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrison, A. H., ‘The Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry 1890–1914’, Ec.H.R., 2nd ser. xxii (1969), 287–303CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Trebilcock, Clive, The Vickers Brothers, Armaments and Enterprise 1854–1914 (1977)Google Scholar.

11 Pollard, S., ‘British and World Shipbuilding, 1890–1914: A Study in Comparative Costs’, Journal of Economic History, xvii (1957), 426–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Peebles, Hugh B., Warshipbuilding on the Clyde (Edinburgh, 1987)Google Scholar. Also, in general, Sandberg, Lars, ‘The Entrepreneur and Technical Change’, in: Floud, Roderick and McCloskey, Donald, eds., The Economic History of Britain since 1700 (2 vols., Cambridge, 1981), i. 99–119Google Scholar.

12 Pollard, Britain's Prime, chapter 3, and literature cited therein.

13 Ward, David, ‘The Public Schools and Industry in Britain after 1870’, Journal of Contemporary History, ii (1967), 47, 52Google Scholar.

14 Kocka, Jürgen, Unternehmer in der deutschen Industrialisierung (Göttingen, 1975), 111Google Scholar. [Transl. S.P.].

15 Coleman, , ‘Gentlemen’, 111Google Scholar; Bamford, T. W., Rise of the Public Schools (1967), 253Google Scholar.

16 This point is developed in an unpublished dissertation at Bielefeld University, Berghoff, Hartmut, Englische Unternehmer 1870–1914, Eine Kollektivbiographie führender Wirtschaftsbürger in Birmingham, Bristol und Manchester (1989)Google Scholar.

17 Supple, Barry, ‘Aspects of Private Investment Strategy in Britain’, in: Daems, Herman and van der Wee, Herman, eds., The Rise of Managerial Capitalism (Louvain, 1974), 89 ff.Google Scholar; also Morazé, Charles, The Triumph of the Middle Classes (New York, 1968), pp. 491 ffGoogle Scholar.

18 Richardson, , ‘Retardation’, 114Google Scholar.

19 E.g., Casson, Mark, The Entrepreneur. An Economic Theory (Oxford, 1982), 9–11Google Scholar; Aitken, Hugh G. J., ‘The Problems of Entrepreneurial Freedom’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, I (04 1949), 1–2Google Scholar; Redlich, Fritz, ‘Toward an Understanding of an Unfortunate Legacy’, Kyklos, 19 (1966), 709–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schumpeter, Joseph A., ‘Economic Theory and Entrepreneurial History’, in: Aitken, Hugh G.J., ed., Explorations in Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 48Google Scholar.

20 Schumpeter, ‘Economic Theory’; Redlich, Fritz, ‘The Origin of the Concepts of “Entrepreneur” and “Creative Entrepreneur”’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, I (02 1949), 1–2Google Scholar; Turin, Guido, Der Begriff des Untemehmers (Zürich, 1948)Google Scholar; Parker, W. N., ‘Entrepreneurship, Industrial Organisation, and Economic Growth’, Journal of Economic History, xiv (1954), 380–400CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cole, Arthur H., ‘The Stone that the Builders Rejected…’, Tradition, xiii (1968), 106Google Scholar; Zorn, Wolfgang, ‘Typen und Entwicklungskräfte deutschen Unternehmertums im 19. Jahrhundert’, Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, xliv (1957), 57–77Google Scholar; Say, J.-B., A Treatise on Political Economy (New York, 1964) [1st ed. 1803], 329Google Scholar.

21 Knight, Frank H., Risk, Uncertainty and Profit (1948) [1st ed. 1921]Google Scholar.

22 Greenfield, Sidney M. and Strickton, Arnold, ‘Entrepreneurship and Social Change: Toward a Populational Decision-Making Approach’, in: Greenfield, S. M. et al. , eds., Entrepreneurs in Cultural Context (Albuquerque, 1979), 329–50Google Scholar.

23 Marshall, Alfred, Principles of Economics (8th ed., 1946), 136–9, 220 ffGoogle Scholar.

24 Hawley, F. B., Enterprise and the Productive Process (New York, 1907)Google Scholar, quoted in Campbell and Wilson, 72; Fairchild, Fred Rogers, Furniss, Edgar Stevenson, Buck, Norman Sydney, Elementary Economics (New York, 1928), 40–1Google Scholar; Gras, N.S.B., ‘Capitalism, Concepts and History’, in: Lane, Frederick C. and Riemersma, Jelle C., eds., Enterprise and Technical Change (1953), 69Google Scholar.

25 Schumpeter, Joseph A., The Theory of Economic Development (New York, 1961) [1st ed. 1911]Google Scholar; also his ‘Creative Response in Economic History’, Journal of Economic History, vi (1947), 149–59Google Scholar; article ‘Unternehmer’ in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (1928), viii. 476–87Google Scholar; Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York, 1942)Google Scholar.

26 Redlich, Fritz, ‘The Business Leader as a ‘Daimonic’ Figure’, American Journal of Economics and Sociology, xii (1952–1953), 163–78 and 288–99Google Scholar; also his ‘Origin’, 3ff.; and his Der Unternehmer (Göttingen, 1964), 77, 172–7, 230 ffGoogle Scholar;. Cole, A. H., ‘An Approach to the Study of Entrepreneurship’, Journal of Economic History, vi, Supplement (1946), 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clemence, Richard V. and Doody, Francis S., The Schumpeterian System (New York, 1966) [1st ed. 1950]Google Scholar.

27 Hughes, Jonathan, The Vital Few, American Economic Progress and Its Protagonists (1973) [1st ed. 1966], pp. viii–ix, 2Google Scholar.

28 Cole, , ‘The Stone’, 107 ffGoogle Scholar. Aitken, Hugh G.J., ‘Entrepreneurial Research: The History of an Intellectual Innovation’, in: Aitken, , Explorations, 3–19Google Scholar.

29 This, clearly, was of considerable importance in Britain, as part of the heritage of the ‘early start’. A large literature has followed the early studies of that phenomenon: Frankel, M., ‘Obsolescence and Technical Change in a Maturing Economy’, American Economic Review, xlv (1955), 296–319Google Scholar; Kindleberger, Charles P., ‘Obsolescence and Technical Change’, Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Statistics, 23 (1961), 281–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Cochran, Thomas C., ‘“Role and Sanction” in American Entrepreneurial History’, in: Aitken, , Explorations, 93–112Google Scholar.

31 Sawyer, John E., ‘The Social Basis of the American System of Manufacturing’, Journal of Economic History, xiv (1954), 361–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Greenfield, et al. , Entrepreneurs, 9Google Scholar.

32 Sawyer, John E., ‘Strains in the Structure of Modern France’, in: Earle, Edward M., ed., Modern France (Princeton, 1951), 293–312Google Scholar; Landes, David S., ‘French Entrepreneurship and Industrial Growth in the Nineteenth Century’, in: Supple, Barry S., ed., The Experience of Economic Growth (New York, 1963), 340–53Google Scholar; Cameron, Rondo, ‘Economic Growth and Stagnation in France, 1815–1914’, Journal of Modern History, xxx (1958), 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fohlen, Claude, ‘Entrepreneurship and Management in France in the Nineteenth Century’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vii (Cambridge 1978), 347–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 An excellent balanced summary of the debate will be found in Kocka, Jürgen, ‘German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg’, Journal of Contemporary History, xxiii (1988), 3–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also his introduction: ‘Bürgertum und bürgerliche Gesellschaft im 19. Jahrhundert’, in Kocka, , ed., Bürgertum im 19, Jahrhundert, Deutschland im europäischen Vergleich, 3 vols. (Munich, 1988), i. 11–67Google Scholar.

34 Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford, 1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar [Original German edition 1980]. Also see Kaelble, Hartmut, ‘Wie feudal waren die deutschen Unternehmer im Kaiserreich?’ in: Tilly, Richard, ed., Beiträge zur quantitativen vergleichenden Unternehmensgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1985), 148–71Google Scholar.

35 Cited in Helbach, Hans-Peter, ‘Berliner Unternehmer in Vormärz und Revolution 1847–1848’, in: Büsch, Otto, ed., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der frühen Industrialisierung vornehmlich im Wirtschaftsraum Berlin/Brandenburg (Berlin, 1971), 419Google Scholar. [Transl. S.P.]. Also see Zorn, Wolfgang, ‘Das deutsche Unternehmerportrait in sozialgeschichtlicher Betrachtung’, Tradition, vii (1962), 90–2Google Scholar, and Zunkel, Friedrich, Der rheinisch-westfalische Unternehmer 1834–1879 (Cologne, 1962), 66, 89CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 E.g., Tipton, Frank B. Jr, Regional Variations in the Economic Development of Germany in the Nineteenth Century (Middletown, Conn., 1976), 146–7Google Scholar.

37 Kaelble, Hartmut, ‘Französisches und deutsches Bürgertum’, in Kocka, , Burgertum, i. 108Google Scholar.

38 Kehr, Eckart, Economic Interest, Militarism and Foreign Policy (Berkeley, 1977), 104, 119Google Scholar. Also, Dahrendorf, Ralf, Society and Democracy in Germany (1968)Google Scholar.

39 Michels, Robert, Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie (Stuttgart, 1970), 16Google Scholar. [1st ed. 1910] [Transl. S.P.]. Also his Umschichtungen der herrschenden Klasse nach dent Kriege (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1934), 43Google Scholar.

40 Sombart, Werner, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1909), 508 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar.

41 Michels, Robert, Probleme der Sozialphilosophie (Leipzig, 1914), 167–8Google Scholar; Kocka, , ‘Bürgertum’, 67–8Google Scholar; Kaelble, H., ‘L'evolution du recruitement du patronat comparé a celles des États-Unis et de la Grande-Bretagne depuis la revolution industrielle’, in: Lévy-Leboyer, Maurice, ed., Le patronat de la seconde industrialisation (Paris, 1979), 20–1Google Scholar; Palmade, Guy, ed., Das bürgerliche Zeitalter (Frankfort/M., 1975), 170Google Scholar; Herf, Jeffrey, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1984)Google Scholar, chapter 1.

42 Beck, Thomas D. and Beck, Martha W., French Notables (New York, 1987)Google Scholar.

43 Tanner, Albert, ‘Bürgertum und Bürgerlichkeit in der Schweiz’, in: Kocka, , ed., Bürgertum, i. 200Google Scholar, [Transl. S.P.].

44 Palmade, Guy P., French Capitalism in the Nineteenth Century (Newton Abbot, 1972), 152Google Scholar; Kemp, Tom, Economic Forces in French History, (1971), 182Google Scholar; Daumard, Adeline, ‘La bourgeoisie et les classes dirigeantes’, in: Braudel, Fernand and Labrousse, Ernest, eds., Histoire économique et sociale de la France (Paris, 1970–1982), iv. 51Google Scholar. Also ibid., iii. 946; Kaelble, , ‘Franzosisches’, 113, 124Google Scholar; Bergeron, Louis, Les capitalistes en France (1780–1914), (Paris 1978). 163Google Scholar.

45 Michels, , Umschichtungen, 50 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar. Also his Probleme, 157–8.

46 Price, Roger, A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France (1987), 99Google Scholar.

47 Charle, Christophe, ‘L'image sociale des milieux d'affaires d'après Qui êtes-vous?’ in: Lévy-Leboyer, , Patronat, 278 ffGoogle Scholar.

48 Cameron, Rondo and Freeman, Charles E., ‘French Economic Growth. A Radical Revision’, Social Science History, vii (1983), 3–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leet, Don R. and Shaw, John A., ‘French Economic Stagnation: Old Economic History Revisited’, Journal of Inter-disciplinary History, viii (1978), 531–44Google Scholar; and note 32 above.

49 Caron, Francois, ‘Dynamisme et freinages de la croissance industrielle’, in Braudel, and Labrousse, , iv. 278 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar; Bergeron, , Capitalistes, 125–33Google Scholar; Palmade, , Zeitalter, 172 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar. Also see Weidenfeld, Kurt, ‘Das Personliche im modernen Unternehmertum’, Jahrbuck für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirlschaft, Folge, Neue, xxxiv (1910), 1. 230–1Google Scholar.

50 Cited in Matis, Herbert, ‘Der österreichische Unternehmer’, in: Mane-gold, Karl-Heinz, ed., Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft und Technik, (Munich, 1969), 286 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar; Kaufhold, K. H., ‘Handwerk und Industrie’, in: Aubin, Hermann und Zorn, Wolfgang, eds., Handbuch der Deutschen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1976), ii. 362Google Scholar.

51 Mentschl, Josef, ‘Das österreichische Unternehmertum’, in: Busatti, Alois, ed., Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, vol. 1. Die wirlschaftliche Entwicklung (Vienna, 1973), 264–5, 276Google Scholar. [Transl. S.P.].

52 Matis, 298; Tremel, Ferdinand, ed., Sleirische Unternehmer des 19, und 20, Jahrhunderts, (Graz, 1965), 106Google Scholar; Bruckmüller, Ernst and Stekl, Hannes, ‘Zur Geschichte des Bürgertums in Oesterreich’, in: Kocka, , Biirgertum, i. 172–3Google Scholar, but see also 175–6.

53 Cited in McCragg, W. O. Jr, ‘Hungary's ‘Feudalized’ Bourgeoisie’. Journal of Modern History, xliv (1972), 75Google Scholar. Also Hánák, Peter, ‘Probleme der Entstehung des Unternehmerbürgertums in Ungarn’ (unpubl. cyclost., Bielefeld, 1989)Google Scholar; Ranki, Gyorgy, ‘Die Entwicklung des ungarischen Bürgertums vom späten 18. zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert’, in: Kocka, , Bürgertum, i. 247–65Google Scholar.

54 Havránek, Jan, ‘Prag in der Zeit der Industrialisierung’, in: Gletder, Monika et al. , eds., Zentrale Städte und ihr Umland (St Katharinen, 1985) 102–2Google Scholar; Kolodziejczyk, Ryszard, ‘The Bourgeoisie in Poland in the 19th and 20th Century against the European Background’, Studia Historiae Oeconomicae, v (1970), 225Google Scholar; also Dlugoborski, Waclaw, ‘Das polnische Bürgertum vor 1918 in vergleichender Perspektive’, in: Kocka, , Bürgertum, i. 266–99Google Scholar.

55 Gerschenkron, Alexander, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), 60–3Google Scholar; Kulischer, Josef, ‘Die kapitalistischen Unternehmer in Ruβland (insbesondere die Bauern als Unternehmer) in den Anfangsstadien des Kapitalismus’, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, lxv (1931), 309–55Google Scholar; Weidenfeld, Kurt, ‘Die Herkunft der Unternehmer und Kapitalisten im Aufbau der kapitalistischen Zeit’, Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, lxxii (1954), 268–9Google Scholar.

56 McKay, John P., Pioneers for Profit, Foreign Entrepreneurship and Russian Industrialization 1885–1913 (Chicago, 1970), 383CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 Grunwald, Kurt, Europe's Railways and Jewish Enterprise (1967), 187Google Scholar. Also White, James D., ‘Moscow, Petersburg and the Russian Industrialists’, Soviet Studies, xxiv (1972–1973), 414–20Google Scholar; McKay, Pioneers.

58 Zorn, Wolfgang and Schneider, Sibylle, ‘Das Unternehmertum im Gebiet der heutigen foderativen Volksrepublik Jugoslawien im 19. Jahrhundert’, Tradition, xvi (1971), 15Google Scholar; Berend, Ivan T., ‘Investment Strategy in East-Central Europe’, in Daems, and van der Wee, , 170–96Google Scholar; Lampe, John R., ‘Serbia 1878–1912’, in: Cameron, Rondo, ed., Banking and Economic Development (New York, 1972), 134Google Scholar.

59 Meriggi, Marco, ‘Italienisches und deutsches Bürgertum im Vergleich’, in: Kocka, , Bürgertum, 154 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar; Donges, Juergen B., La Industrialization en España, Politicas, Logros, Perspectivas (Barcelona, 1976), 26 [Transl. S.P.]Google Scholar.

60 Landes, David S., ‘A Note on Cultural Factors in Entrepreneurship’, Explorations in Entrepreneurial History, i (01 1949). 8, 9Google Scholar. Also see Cole, ‘Approach’.

61 Braun, Rudolf, ‘Zur Einwirkung sozio-kultureller Umweltbedingungen auf das Unternehmerpotential und das Unternehmerverhalten’, in: WolframFischer, , ed., Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichtliche Probleme der frühen Industrialisierung (Berlin, 1968), 249–54Google Scholar.

62 Cochran, Thomas C., ‘Cultural Factors in Economic Growth’, in: Aitken, , Explo-rations, 123Google Scholar.

63 Hirschman, A. O., Strategy of Economic Development (New Haven, 1958), 35–9Google Scholar.

64 Gerschenkron, , Backwardness, 58 fGoogle Scholar.

65 Greenfield et al, introduction, vii.

66 Parker, , ‘Entrepreneurship’, 381Google Scholar.

67 Hirschmeier, Johannes, The Origins of Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), 288Google Scholar; also Smith, T. C., ‘Pre-Modern Economic Growth: Japan and the West’, Past and Present, 60 (1973), 151–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kunio, Yoshihara, Japanese Economic Development (Oxford, 1979), 88Google Scholar. But see Yamamura, Kozo, ‘A Re-examination of Entrepreneurship in Meiji Japan’, in: Kilby, Peter, ed., Entrepreneurship and Economic Development (New York, 1971), 267–86Google Scholar.

68 Mayer, Arno, The Persistence of the Old Regime (New York, 1981)Google Scholar. Also see Bendix, Reinhard, Work and Authority in Industry (New York, 1956), 20–21Google Scholar; Stein, Gustav (ed.), Unternehmer in der Politik (Düsseldorf, 1954), 46–51Google Scholar; Michels, , Umschichtungen, 44–6Google Scholar; Bergier, J.-F., ‘The Industrial Bourgeoisie and the Rise of the Working Class 1700–1914’, in: Cipolla, Carlo, ed., Fontana Economic History of Europe (1973–1976), iii. 410–16Google Scholar; Mosse, Werner, ‘Adel und Bürgertum im Europa des 19. Jahrhunderts. Eine vergleichende Betrachtung’, in: Kocka, , Burgertum, ii. 277–314Google Scholar.

69 Details in Pollard, , Britain's Prime, 6–7Google Scholar.

70 Something of this kind is suggested by Kocka, Jürgen and Siegrist, Hannes, ‘Die hundert gröβten deutschen Industrieunternehmen in späten 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert’, in: Horn, Norbert and Kocka, Jürgen, eds., Law and the Formation of the Big Enterprises in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Göttingen, 1979), 89–95Google Scholar.

71 Kuznets, Simon, ‘Retardation of lndustrial Growth’, Journal of Economic and Business History, i (1928–1929), 534–60Google Scholar.

72 See the general discussion in Coleman, ‘Gentlemen’.

73 Literature in note 4 above.

74 There is a large literature. For an introduction, see Kocka, Jürgen, Untemehmer, 102 ffGoogle Scholar.

75 Bairoch, Paul, Commerce extérieur et développement économique de l'Europe au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1976)Google Scholar; McCloskey, Donald N., ‘Magnanimous Albion: Free Trade and British National Income, 1841–1881’, in his Enterprise and Trade, 155–72Google Scholar.