^{page 83 note 1} Anskar (801–65), born in Picardie. Monk at Corbie, and at New Corbie in Saxony. Founded school at Hedeby circa 825. Founded church at Birka, 829. Archbishop of Hamburg, 831, and Bishop of Bremen, 848 Built church at Ribe circa 850.

^{page 83 note 2} Absolem (Absalon) (Axel), 1128–1201, foster-brother to Valdemar I of Denmark, 1157–82. Bishop of Roskilde 1158. Archbishop of Lund 1178. Led crusade against Wends and annexed Rügen 1169. Assisted in conquest of Pomerania and Mecklenburg 1184.

^{page 83 note 3} Trolle, Gustav Ericson, Archbishop of Upsala 1513.

^{page 83 note 4} See Finske studerande vid utrikes universiteter före 1640. Leinberg, K.G.

^{page 84 note 1} The New Testament had already been rendered into Swedish in 1526 by Olov Pettersson, who was also responsible for a translation of the Psalms.

^{page 86 note 1} The Swedish Crusades: (a) The undocumented crusade of Erik the Saint, circa 1157, followed by military expeditions penetrating as far as Ladoga in 1162 and 1164; (b) following the destruction of Åbo and the total extinction of Swedish power and influence in 1198 by a mixed force of Carelians and Russians came the second crusade of Birger Jarl, who re-established the Swedish power firmly as far as the Kymene River, 1249; (c) the third, led by Torgils Knutsson, 1293, founded Viborg.

^{page 88 note 1} An interesting census of property dated 1602 gives, among much other detail, the number of dwelling-houses and of chimneys in Viborg: In the four quarters of the Old Town, 143 dwelling-houses and 135 chimneys; in the New Town and two suburbs, 74 and 21 of each; Crown employes numbered 52 and 38; widows, 18 and 21 (?); noble families, 20 and 23; and the clergy, 14 and 16, making a total of 321 and 254 respectively.

^{page 88 note 2} That Viborg was more unclean than the usual run of towns is apparent from the displeasure shown by Gustaf Vasa in his visit of 1555, and again in a precept of 1558.

^{page 88 note 3} Another relic of monastic custom, since the majority of the scholars at the monastic schools would have taken lesser orders, in preparation to entry into the church.

^{page 89 note 1} The participation of Viborg scholars in the Vigils for the Dead parallels the monastic custom of a similar participation on the part of the “children of the almonry.” The following extract from the description of a monk's funeral is taken from the Rites of Durham (Surtees Society, 1903): “Then were the children of th'Aumery sitting on there knees in stalls, of eyther syd the corpes, appoynted to read Davids psalter all nyght over, incessantly, till the said hour of eight o clock in the morning, at which tyme the corpse was conveyed to the Chapter House.” The Guild House in all probability still exists as the small square stone house in the yard of Keysargaten, 10.

^{page 90 note 1} Elias Lönnrot, 1802–84, poet, compiler of the Kalevala, Kanteletar, etc., was enabled to pursue his studies by resort to “sockengangen.” A vivid account of the whole business of parish visiting as practised from the gymnasium at Åbo in the mid-eighteenth century is given in Ödman's, S., Hagkomster frdn hembygden och skolan (1760)Google Scholar.

The Latin school songs used freely in the Finnish schools appear to have been largely transmitted from pre-Reformation times. They were collected by a scholar from Nyland, Theodore Peter Ruuth, and printed at Greifswald in 1582, under title Piae Cantiones Ecclesiasticae et Scholasticas veterum Episcoporum in inclyto regno Svedae passim usurpatae. These, although for long known, are referred to in The Oxford Book of Carols, 1928, “A very rare book … called Piae Cantiones … full of exquisite sixteenth-century tunes….” (No. 141 in that collection is a translation.) Ödmann says, “Under hela advents tiden sjungos de efter gifvet lof af rektor, medan lararne samlades och samsprakade i forstugan.” The Piae Cantiones were printed a second time at Rostock by two Viborg schoolmasters, Henricis Martini Fatebur and Matthias Jacobus Tolin in 1625, and a third time at Visingborg, at the command and expense of Count Per Brahe, in 1679. In the school at Bjorneborg the singing of these songs occupied the first hour from 5–6 in the morning, prior to the reorganisation in 1830.

^{page 92 note 1} That this singing for alms was not always unattended by a certain risk is abundantly clear from a Complaint from the Scholars of Helsingfors of 1619 (?):

Noble and most gracious Lord Governor. We, poor Scholars wish Your Nobility all Spiritual and Temporal Prosperity in Jesus Christ His Name.

Noble and Illustrious, We, poor and oppressed Scholars, free by privilege from our Gracious Lord and King from all injustice, outrage and oppression, Yet has an ungentle man by name Isak Gisteson, Lieutenant in the Company of Nils Dobler of good esteem, broken our peace when we, as of old custom, sought the aid of good and honourable people of our town that we might continue our studies. It chanced on the day when we went around the town that the burghers were not therein, but were a mile without the town at a wedding and so we had nothing from them. When they came home later, we requested the Schoolmaster that we might visit these same burghers and receive alms. First we went to Burgher Anders Nilsson, where we made our petition as we should, and he then called us in. There were there also certain guests who were strangers, and we were detained by them awhile, so that it began to grow dusk and drew towards evening. When we went from Anders Nilsson directly to Derik Larsson, it happened that the aforesaid Isak Gistersson came from a Goldsmith's yard and fell upon us with a drawn sword, hewing in ernest at whomsoever he could reach. One he cut upon the hand, from another he cut the nose. The third, a chorister, he stuck in the back; the fourth he hewed in the head so that therefrom has been taken twelve pieces of bone and also upon the hand so that he is disabled all his days. So, with his extremest might he treated us while he could reach any upon the street. While he thus wrought in the street, one of the unwounded scholars fled along a lane by the shore on the ice, and since he was exhausted and could run no further he hid under a warehouse until he thought that the disturbance was passed. Then the scholar came back by the same way to return home, and thought to find his hat which was left upon the street, (which hat and all the others in the meantime was stolen). But when this scholar came up the shore lane he was met by the Goldsmith from whose house the violent man came. Then the Goldsmith called him from the yard where he lay in ambush and began to treat the scholar as he had the others, and hewed him in the head and face so that he is disfigured all his days, and his arm and hand maimed so that he may no longer use them. Moreover, when he had so murderously proceeded and manifested his warlike deeds, he reproached us, who lay half dead, saying insultingly, ‘Now, indeed, are ye scholars.’ Moreover, when our parents would have had justice upon him, he said, that as he had done to us, so he would do to them. So, this impious man has treated us poor scholars that we are of use neither to ourselves nor to others, whereas, formerly, had this malice not been, We, by God's Grace, had been able to serve the common good (i.e., in government service) or to the profit and service of God's people (i.e., as ministers of religion).

We unprotected Scholars send this sorrowful complaint to You that we may have a good and comforting answer, and that this evil man may be punished for his conduct and tyranny, and that his evil purpose and will may cease at once.

And may Your Eminence rest always under God's gracious protection.

Your Highness' humble and obedient servants

The Scholars of Helsingfors Town.

^{page 94 note 1} The assumption of authority by the Boy Bishop at the Feast of St. Nicholas till Innocents Day was widespread. The Records of Westminster Abbey under date 1360 states, “a grant from Simon Abbat and the Convent of Westminster to Frater Nicholas de Litlyngton Prior of Westminster, that on his decease they will celebrate his anniversary on St. Nicholas Day each year, also that from the outgoings of … the marshland at Southbenflet, all of which property the above Prior at his own charges united to the above Abbey, be distributed to the poor 6s. 8d. and 3s. 4d. for the recreation of the Boy Bishop and his companions.”

^{page 95 note 1} The astounding attitude of the Swede intellectual with regard to the native Finnish language is illustrated in a letter from the Cathedral Chapter of Åbo to the Rektor of the Björneborg school (1748) which reads, “that since boys who could not read nor understand Swedish would spend their time fruitlessly at school, they should not be accepted there.” And following that comes an official regulation by the Governors of the same school in 1760, “that since the use of the Finnish tongue was very usual among the boys, the teachers, having in mind the harm thereof, should, each in his place, exercise the greatest pains that a habit, so vicious in nature, should be restricted to the greatest possible degree.” Hence the use of the native language by the majority of the students was stamped as a crime, a remarkable state of affairs that persisted officially until 1843.

^{page 95 note 2} Mikael Agricola, 1510–57. Fisherman's son from Pernå. Educated at Viborg. Taught at Viborg. Went to Åbo to continue studies. Attracted the attention of Bishop Martin Skytte, a Dominican monk, formerly Vicar-General of Dominicans in Scandinavia, chosen by Gustaf Vasa as Bishop of Åbo, and remained true to his vows of poverty and celibacy. Skytte sent Agricola to Wittenberg (1536–39). Here Agricola commenced translation of New Testament. Returned to Åbo as Rektor of the School.

^{page 96 note 1} Count John of Hoija, brother-in-law to Gustaf Vasa. Last of the Ruling Counts of Carelia. Appointed 1525. Vasa's envoy to Lubeck, where he promised more than his instructions permitted. Kept Princely Court at Viborg. Opened Viborg to Hansa. Rebelled against Vasa. Fled 1534.

^{page 97 note 1} With regard to the exact value of the grants of meal, it is difficult to state their equivalents. The tunn which is usually specified varied with the district and with time. As late as 1855 there were at least five differing values. The measure varied also with the nature of the goods. The tunn for wheat, rye, oats, to-day = 1.65 hectolitres. In the mid 1700 the Rektor of Åbo Academy received 120 tunn, the Sub-Rektor 70, the Senior Assistant 30 and the Junior Assistants 10 tunn yearly. At the same time an assistant Curate received board and lodging plus about 4 tunn of meal. He had to make his own bed, scrub his own floor, chop his own wood, and could not afford to marry. The last was the rough equivalent to a single horse load.

^{page 98 note 1} Pontus de la Gardie. French soldier of fortune. Served in Danish and Swedish wars. Married illegitimate daughter of John II of Sweden. Was given supreme command of forces in Finland when war with Russia began, 1570. Advanced from Viborg. Took Keksholm. Added southern Carelia to Swedish Finland. Overran Ingermannland, took Narva, freed Swedish Estonia from Russian forces. Caused Ivan the Terrible to sue for peace. Accidentally drowned crossing the river Narva after concluding peace, 1583.

^{page 105 note 1} Gustaf Götriksson Fincke (1510 circa – 1566), tyrannous, unscrupulous, capable and hard driving. Rose to highest place in the Royal favour in the administration of Finland. Count of Nyslott, and later of Viborg. Took, under the sovereign, the leading place in the extension of Finnish influence by colonisation to the east and north.

^{page 107 note 1} The universal use of church buildings for school purposes had a classic example in Sweden in the famous school founded in 1636 by Count Per Brahe—a school made particularly notable in that it possessed its own printing press from 1667.

^{page 108 note 1} The broad educational outlook of the Vasas went far beyond their time. Their thoughts travelled beyond State and Church, to the needs pf trade and craft.

^{page 111 note 1} Per Brahe (Per = Peder = Peter) (1602–80), Count of Visingsborg, Baron of Kajana, Lord of Rydborolm, Lindholm, Brahelinna and Bogesund, Royal Chancellor and Privy Councillor, Sheriff of Västmanland, Bergslagen, and Dalarne, Governor-General of Finland 1637–40, 1648–51–54. Possibly the most notable Governor Finland ever had. Lived in Royal State at Åbo. Spoke of his “Kingdom” and of his “Subjects.”