Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-xfwgj Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-03T21:55:34.893Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fishing and conservation in southern waters Karl-Hermann Kock

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 October 2009

Karl-Hermann Kock
Karl-Hermann Kock
Affiliation:
Institut für Seefischerei, Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei, Palmaille 9, D-22767 Hamburg, Germany
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the Southern Ocean, fishing for finfish began in 1969/70 and for krill in 1972/73. The Soviet Union was the most important fishing nation, taking 80–90% of the entire catch. More than 3 million tonnes of finfish wereharvested prior to 1992/93, most of the catch coming from around South Georgia and lies Kerguelen. After 15 years of exploitation, most fish stocks were heavily depleted. The krill catch from the Southern Ocean has been 4.9 million tonnes to date. More than 90% of this catch has originated from the Atlantic sector. 50–90% is taken from the foraging range of land-based predators during the critical period of their breeding cycle when they raise their young. This creates the potential for direct competition between krill fisheries and krill-dependent predators. Potential impacts of krill and finfishing on the ecosystems of the Southern Ocean range from endangering recruitment due to the by-catch of juvenile fish in the krill fishery to incidental mortality of birds during longline operations and the entanglement of seals in fragments of discarded or lost fishing gear.

Most fish stocks had already been over-exploited before the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) came into force in 1982. Stringent conservation measures to halt the further decline of the stocks have been implemented only since 1989. There is evidence that some fish stocks have started to recover recently. Precautionary catch limits for krill of 1.5 million tonnes for the Atlantic sector (Statistical Area 48), and of 390, 000 tonnes for Statistical Division 58. 4.2 in the Indian sector, were set in 1991 and 1992, respectively. CCAMLR has implemented a number of conservation measures to safeguard other components of the marine ecosystems from fishing. CCAMLR adopted a system of inspection in 1989/90 and a scheme of international scientific observation in 1992. It is too early to judge the efficacy of these enforcement and data-gathering programmes.

There is a growing recognition in CCAMLR of the need for preventati ve measures in circumstances of biological uncertainty. The development of multi-species management models appears to be remote at present. The way forward is likely to be a single-species model for the krill fishery, which needs to take implicit account of the demands of natural predators, particularly at small scales. If demersal fish stocks are able to recover to their maximum sustainable yield level, the fishery potential of the Southern Ocean is likely to be much larger than current catches. The fishery potential of krill and mesopelagic lanternfish is likely to exceed that of demersal fish stocks by an order of magnitude. By contrast with the 1970s and 1980s, when most fisheries were subsidized, economic considerations and market demands will be the primary determinants of the development of fishing in southern waters during the 1990s.

Type
Articles
Information
Polar Record , Volume 30 , Issue 172 , January 1994 , pp. 3 - 22
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agnew, D.J. 1993. Distribution of krill (Euphausia superba Dana) catches in the South Shetlands and South Orkneys. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1992, SC-CAMLR SSP/9): 287–303.Google Scholar
Arnould, J. 1991. Entanglement in man-made debris of Antarctic fur seals at Bird Island, South Georgia. Hobart: CCAMLR (Document CCAMLR-X/BG/5).Google Scholar
Barrat, A., and Mougin, J.L.. 1978. L'élephant de mer, Mirounga leonina, de I'ile de la Possession, archipel Crozet (46° 25' S, 51° 45' E). Mammalia 42 (2): 143–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartle, J.A. 1990. Sexual segregation of foraging zones in procellariiform birds: implications of accidental capture on commercial fishery longlines of Grey Petrels (Procellaria cinerea). Notomis 37: 146–150.Google Scholar
Bartle, J.A. 1991. Incidental capture of seabirds in the New Zealand sub-Antarctic squid trawl fishery, 1990. Bird Conservation International 1: 351–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basson, M., and Beddington, J.R.. 1991. CCAMLR: the practical implications of an ecosystem approach. In: Jorgensen-Dahl, A., and Østreng, W. (editors). The Antarctic Treaty System in world politics. Basingstoke: MacMillan Academic and Professional: 54–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basson, M., Beddington, J.R., and Slosarczyk, W.. 1989. The status of the Champsocephalus stock in the South Georgia area. Hobart: CCAMLR (Document FSA WG 89/8).Google Scholar
Beddington, J.R., and Mare, W.K. de la. 1985. Marine mammal-fishery interactions: modelling and the Southern Ocean. In: Beddington, J.R., Beverton, R.J. H., and Lavigne, D.M. (editors). Marine mammals and fisheries. London and Sydney: George Allen and Unwin: 94–105.Google Scholar
Bonner, W.N. 1985. Birds and mammals-Antarctic seals. In: Bonner, W.N., and Walton, D.W. H. (editors). Key environments: Antarctica. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press: 202–222.Google Scholar
Brothers, N.P. 1991. Approaches to reducing albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery. Biological Conservation 55: 255–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butterworth, D.S. 1989 a. A simulation study of krill fishing by an individual Japanese trawler. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1988, SC-CAMLR SSP/5): 1–108.Google Scholar
Butterworth, D.S. 1989 b. Some aspects of the relation between krill abundance and CPUE measures in the Japanese krill fishery. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1988, SC-CAMLR SSP/5): 109–126.Google Scholar
Butterworth, D.S. 1991. Towards an initial operational management procedure forthe krill fishery in Subareas 48. 1,48. 2 and 48.3. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1990, SC-CAMLR SSP/7): 189–202.Google Scholar
Butterworth, D.S., Punt, A.E., and Basson, M.. 1992 a. A simple approach for calculating the potential yield of krill from biomass survey results. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1991, SC-CAMLR SSP/8): 207–217.Google Scholar
Butterworth, D.S., Punt, A.E., Bergh, M.O., and Borchers, D.L.. 1992 b. Assessment and management of South African marine resources during the period of the Benguela Ecology Programme: key lessons and future directions. In: Payne, A.I. L., Brink, K.H., Mann, K.H., and Hillbom, R. (editors). Benguela trophic functioning. Cape Town: Republic of South Africa (South African Journal of Marine Science 12): 989–1004.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1985. Report of the fourth meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1987. Report of the sixth meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1988. Report of the seventh meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1989. Report of the eighth meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1990. Report of the ninth meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1991a. Report of the tenth meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1991b. Report of the Workshop on Southern Elephant Seals. Hobart: CCAMLR (Document WGCEMP 91/12).Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1992a. Report of the eleventh meeting of the Commission. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1992b. Statistical Bulletin: volume 5 (1983–1992). Hobart: CCAMLR (CCAMLR-B/93/5).Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1992c. Report on assessment of incidental mortality in the Convention Area 1991/92: United States of America. Hobart: CCAMLR (Document CCAMLR Xl/ BG/7).Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1992d. Basic documents. Sixth edition. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
CCAMLR. 1992e. Schedule of conservation measures in force: 1992/93. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar
Clarke, M.R. 1985. Marine habitats – cephalopods. In: Bonner, W.N., and Walton, D.W. H. (editors). Key environments: Antarctica. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press: 193–200.Google Scholar
Croxall, J.P. 1990. Use of indices of predator status and performance in CCAMLR fishery management strategies. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1989, SC-CAMLR SSP/6): 353–365.Google Scholar
Croxall, J.P. 1992. Southern Ocean environmental changes: effects on seabird, seal and whale populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 338: 146–169.Google Scholar
Croxall, J.P., Everson, I.. and Miller, D.G. M.. 1992. Management of the Antarctic krill fishery. Polar Record 28 (164): 64–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., McCann, T.S., Prince, P.A., and Rothery, P.. 1988. Reproductive performance of seabirds and seals at South Georgia and Signy Islands, South Orkney Islands 1976–1987: implications for Southern Ocean monitoring studies. In: Sahrhage, D. (Editor). Antarctic Ocean and resourcesvariability. Berlin: Springer Verlag: 261–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., and Prince, P.A.. 1987. Seabirds as predators on marine resources, especially krill at South Georgia. In: Croxall, J.P. (editor). Seabirds: feeding ecology and role in marine ecosystems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 347–368.Google Scholar
Croxall, J.P., and Prince, P.A.. 1990. Recoveries of wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulans ringed at South Georgia 1958–1986. Ring & Migration 11: 43–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., Prince, P.A., and Ricketts, C.. 1985. Relationships between prey life cycles and the extent, nature and timing of seal and seabird predation in the Scotia Sea. In: Siegfried, W.R., Condy, P.R., and Laws, R.M. (editors). Antarctic nutrient cycles and food webs. Berlin: Springer Verlag: 516–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., Rodwell, S., and Boyd, I.. 1990 b. Entanglement in man-made debris of Antarctic fur seals at Bird Island, South Georgia. Marine Mammal Science 6 (3): 221–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croxall, J.P., Rothery, P., Pickering, S.P. C., and Prince, P.A.. 1990 a. Reproductive performance, recruitment and survival of wandering albatrosses Diomedea exulansal Bird Island, South Georgia. Journal of Animal Ecology 59: 775–796.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dayton, P.K. 1990. Polar benthos. In: Smith, W.O. (editor). Polar oceanography, part B: chemistry, biology and geology. San Diego: Academic Press: 631–685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de la Mare, W.K. 1991. Factors to consider in developing management measures for krill. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1990, SC-CAMLR SSP/7):175–187.Google Scholar
de la Mare, W.K., and Constable, A.. 1991. Refinements to the strategy for managing depleted fish stocks based on CCAMLR objectives. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1990, SC-CAMLR SSP/7): 467–475.Google Scholar
Deriso, R.B. 1987. Optimal F0.1 criteria and their relationship to maximum sustainable yield. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 44 (Supplement 2): 339–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duhamel, G. 1987. Ichtyofaune des secteurs indien occidental et atlantique oriental de I'océan austral: biogéographie, cycles biologiques et dynamique des populations. Unpublished Ph. D thesis: Universite Pierre et Marie Curie.Google Scholar
Duhamel, G. 1991. Incidental mortality arising from fisheries activities around Kerguelen Islands (Division 58.5.1). Hobart: CCAMLR (Document SC-X/BG/14).Google Scholar
Everson, I. 1988. Can we satisfactorily estimate variation in krill abundance? In: Sahrhage, D. (editor). Antarctic Ocean and resources variability. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer: 199–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everson, I. 1992. Managing Southern Ocean krill and fish stocks in a changing environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 338: 311–317.Google Scholar
Everson, I. 1993. Address given at the Citizen's Marine Summit, Hyuga, Japan, 7–9 July 1993. Hobart: CCAMLR (Document WG Krill 93/32).Google Scholar
Everson, I., and Goss, C.. 1991. Krill fishing activities in the southwest Atlantic. Antarctic Science 3 (4): 351–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everson, I., Neyelov, A., and Yu, Ye. Permitin. 1992. Bycatch of fish in the South Atlantic krill fishery. Antarctic Science 4 (4): 389–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FAO. 1992. Report of the FAO Technical Consultation on High Seas Fishing, Rome, 7–15 September 1992. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
Goodall, R.N. P., and Galeazzi, A.R.. 1985. A review of the food habits of the small cetaceans of the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic. In: Siegfried, W.R., Condy, P.R., and Laws, R.M. (editors). Antarctic nutrient cycles and food webs. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer, 566–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, K., Burton, H., and Williams, R.. 1989. The diet of Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella(Peters), during the breeding season at Heard Island. Antarctic Science 1 (4): 317–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heap, J.A. 1988. The role of scientific advice for the decision-making process in the Antarctic Treaty System. In: Wolfrum, R. (editor). Antarctic challenge III. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot: 21–28.Google Scholar
Heap, J.A. 1991. Has CCAMLR worked? Management politics and ecological needs. In: Jørgensen-Dahl, A., and Østreng, W. (editors). The Antarctic Treaty in world politics. Basingstoke: MacMillan Academic and Professional: 43–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IWC. 1992. Report of the Scientific Committee. In: Fortysecond report of the International Whaling Commission. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission: 51–270.Google Scholar
IWC. 1993. Report of the Scientific Committee. In: Fortythird report of the International Whaling Commission. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission.Google Scholar
Jones, J.B. 1992. Environmental impact of trawling on the seabed: a review. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 26: 59–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jouventin, P., and Weimerskirch, H.. 1991. Changes in population size and demography of southern seabirds: management implications. In: Perrins, C.M., Lebreton, D., and Hirons, G.J. M (editors). Bird population studies: their relevance to conservation and management. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 297–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kasamatsu, J., and Joyce, G.G.. 1991. Abundance of beaked whales in the Antarctic. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission (Document SC/43/012).Google Scholar
Kock, K.-H. 1991. The state of exploited fish stocks in the Southern Ocean – a review. Archiv fur Fischereiwissenschaft 41 (1): 1–66.Google Scholar
Kock, K.-H. 1992. Antarctic fish and fisheries. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Köster, F.W., and Kock, K.-H.. 1990. Effects of different harvesting strategies on the mackerel icefish Champsocephalus gunnari around South Georgia. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1989, SC-CAMLR SSP/6): 77–100.Google Scholar
Laws, R.M. 1984. Seals. In: Laws, R.M. (editor). Antarctic ecology, vol 2. London: Academic Press: 621–715.Google Scholar
Mangel, M. 1989. Analysis and modelling of the Soviet Southern Ocean krill fleet. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1988, SC-CAMLR SSP/5): 127–236.Google Scholar
Miller, D.G.M. 1991. Exploitation of Antarctic marine living resources: a brief history and possible approach to managing the krill fishery. South African Journal of Marine Science 10: 321–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, D.G.M., and Hampton, I.. 1989. Biology and ecology of the Antarctic krill. Cambridge: Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (BIOMASS Scientific Series 9).Google Scholar
Nemoto, T., Okiyama, M., Iwasaki, N., and Kikuchi, T.. 1988. Squid as predators on krill (Euphausia superba) and prey for sperm whales in the Southern Ocean. In: Sahrhage, D. (editor). Antarctic Ocean and resources variability. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer: 292–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicol, S. 1991. CCAMLR and its approaches to management of the krill fishery. Polar Record 27 (162): 229–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicol, S. 1992. Management of the krill fishery: was CCAMLR slow to act? Polar Record 26 (165): 155–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicol, S., and Mare, W.K. de la. 1993. Ecosystem management and the Antarctic krill. American Scientist 81: 36–47.Google Scholar
North, A.W., Croxall, J.P., and Doidge, D.W.. 1983. Fish prey of the Antarctic fur seal Arctocephalus gazella at South Georgia. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin 61: 27–37.Google Scholar
North, A.W., and Murray, A.W. A.. 1992. Abundance and diurnal vertical distribution of fish larvae in early spring and summer in a fjord at South Georgia. Antarctic Science 4 (4): 405–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orrego Vicuña, F. 1991. The effectiveness of the decisionmaking machinery of CCAMLR: an assessment. In: Jørgensen-Dahl, A., and Ostreng, W. (editors). The Antarctic Treaty System in world politics. Basingstoke: MacMillan Academic and Professional: 25–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pascal, M. 1985. Numerical changes in the population of elephant seals (Mirounga leonina L) in the Kerguelen Archipelago during the past 30 years. In: Beddington, J.R., Beverton, R.J. H., and Lavigne, D.M. (editors). Marine mammals and fisheries. London and Sydney: George Allen and Unwin: 170–186.Google Scholar
Powell, D. 1990. Antarctic marine living resources and CCAMLR. In: Herr, R.A., Hall, H.R., and Haward, M.G. (editors). Antarctica's future, continuity and change. Hobart: Australian Institute of International Affairs: 61–70.Google Scholar
Prince, P.A., Rothery, P., Croxall, J.P., and Wood, A.G.. In press. Population dynamics of black-browed and greyheaded albatrosses Diomedea melanophris and D. chrysostoma at Bird Island, South Georgia. Ibis.Google Scholar
Puissochet, J.P. 1991. CCAMLR – a critical assessment. In: Jørgensen-Dahl, A., and Østreng, W. (editors). The Antarctic Treaty System in world politics. Basingstoke: MacMillan Academic and Professional: 70–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodhouse, P.G. 1990. Cephalopod fauna ofthe Scotia Sea at South Georgia: potential for commercial exploitation and possible consequences. In: Kerry, K.R., and Hempel, G. (editors). Antarctic ecosystems, ecological change and conservation. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer: 289–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodhouse, P.G., Arnbom, T.R., Fedak, M.A., Yeatman, J., and Murray, A.W. A.. 1992. Cephalopod prey of the southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina L. Canadian Journal of Zoology 70: 1007–1015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodhouse, P.G., Croxall, J.P., and Prince, P.A.. 1993. Towards an assessment of the stock of ommastrephid squid Martialia hyadesi in the Scotia Sea: data from predators. In: Okutani, T., O'dor, R.K., and Kubodera, T. (editors). Advances in cephalopod fishery biology. Tokyo: Tokai University Press: 433–440.Google Scholar
Sabourenkov, E. 1992. Myctophids in the diet of Antarctic predators. Hobart: CCAMLR (Selected Scientific Papers 1991, SC-CAMLR SSP/8): 335–368.Google Scholar
SCAR. 1988. Report of the meeting of the SCAR Group of Specialists on Seals, Tasmania, Australia, 23–25 August 1988. Hobart: Unpublished document.Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1989. Report of the eighth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLR VIII).Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1990. Report of the ninth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLRIX).Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1991a. Report of the tenth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLRX).Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1991b. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment. In: Report of the tenth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SCCAMLR-X): 207–345.Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1992a. Report of the eleventh meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLRXI).Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1992b. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment, In: Report ofthe eleventh meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SCCAMLR-XI): 183–345.Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1992c. Report of the fourth meeting of the Working Group on Krill. In: Report of the eleventh meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLR-XI): 111–180.Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR. 1992d. Report of the joint meeting of the Working Group on Krill and the Working Group on the Ecosystem Monitoring Program. In: Report of the eleventh meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SC-CAMLR-XI): 425–439.Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR 1993a. Report of the fifth meeting of the Working Group on Krill. In: Reportof the twelfth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SCCAMLR-XII).Google Scholar
SC-CAMLR 1993b. Report of the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment. In: Report of the twelfth meeting of the Scientific Committee. Hobart: CCAMLR (SCCAMLR-XII).Google Scholar
Sekiguchi, K., Klages, N., Findlay, K., and Best, P.B.. 1993. Feeding habits and possible movements of southern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon planifrons). Proceedings NIPR Symposium on Polar Biology 6: 85–97.Google Scholar
Shuford, W.D., and Spear, L.B.. 1988. Survey of breeding penguins and other seabirds in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, January-February 1987. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/NEC 59. La Jolla, California: National Marine Fisheries Service.Google Scholar
Siegel, V. 1992. Assessment of the krill {Euphausiasuperba) spawning stock off the Antarctic Peninsula. Archivfur Fischereiwissenschaft 41 (2): 101–130.Google Scholar
Slosarczyk, W. 1983. Preliminary estimation of abundance of juvenile Nototheniidae and Channichthyidae within krill swarms east of South Georgia. Acta Ichtyologia et Piscatoria 13: 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, K.R. 1992. Quantitative analysis of the use of discards from squid trawlers by black-browed albatross Diomedea melanophris in the vicinity of the Falkland Islands. Ibis 134: 11–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNCED. 1992. Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosedandsemi-enclosedseas, and coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment & Development, Agenda 21, Chapter 17. Conches, Switzerland: UNCED.Google Scholar
Weimerskirch, H., and Jouventin, P.. 1987. Population dynamics of the wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans, at the Crozet Islands: causes and consequences of the population decline. Oikas 49: 315–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.G. 1984. Marine benthos. In: Laws, R.M. (editor). Antarctic ecology, vol 2. London: Academic Press: 421–461.Google Scholar
Woehler, E., and Green, K.. 1992. Consumption of marine resources by seabirds and seals at Heard Island and the McDonald Islands. Polar Biology 12: 659–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worrest, R.C., and Hader, D.P.. 1989. Effects of stratopheric ozone depletion on marine organisms. Environment and Conservation 16 (3): 261–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, O.R. 1989. The politics of international regime formation: managing natural resources and the environment. International Organization 43: 349–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar