However perverse it might seem to begin the story of Carmen with discussion of a ruddy-faced British battle-commander, the Duke of Wellington was a key figure in the chain of events preparing the ground for Bizet’s celebrated opera long before it was first staged in 1875. The influence on the course of European history of the Irish-born Arthur Wellesley was tremendous. Most celebrated for his victory over Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, for the Spanish – and for an important Spanish strand in the development of French music – his earlier victory over Joseph Napoleon (Bonaparte’s brother) in 1813 at the battle of Vitoria in northern Spain was crucially important. It was decisive in Spanish history, effectively ending Napoleonic rule and the Peninsular Wars in which Spain, England and Portugal had allied to oppose the invading French armies. In that battle, on 21 June 1813, Wellington finally vanquished the Napoleonic forces, and restored the Spanish crown to Fernando VII. The musician Narciso Paz dedicated his Troisième collection d’airs espagnols to Wellington in recognition of his liberation of Spain, though the collection was published in France.

By the time Wellesley entered the fray in the Iberian peninsula the British armies there had recruited and trained a substantial number of Portuguese troops and several Spanish generals commanded trustworthy battalions, most notably General Álava. One of Wellington’s strengths was in his meticulous organisation of a supply chain, which was vital if an army was to survive the harsh extremes of weather in the north of Spain. By contrast, the French armies had less back-up: writers on the period often quote a saying that ‘In Spain, large armies starve, and small ones get beaten.’ Thus, although the majority of paintings of the decisive battle of Vitoria were by British artists, it is a mistake to assume that the outcome was a triumphalist victory for the British. Nevertheless, on his return to England Wellesley was hailed as a hero, and it was his victories in the peninsula which earned him his dukedom, after already having been honoured by the Spanish. For Spain, the battle of Vitoria was a decisive event, resulting in the end of the era Josefina (1808–1813).